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Cells
Tour of the Cell, Divide and Conquer, Mitosis and Meiosis
78
Biology
Undergraduate 1
12/11/2012

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Term
Robert Hooke
Definition
-Coined the word 'cell' - tiniest component of living systems
Term
Cell Fractionation
Definition
-Separating the cell to study it's components using a centrifuge.
Term
The Cell
Definition
-Basic unit of life that performs all functions necessary for life and reproduction
Term
Virus
Definition
-Occurs in all organisms and is highly specific to its host
-Can only reproduce when entering the cell
Term
Prokaryotic Cells
Definition
-Cells with no nucleus (genetic info in the nucleoid)
i.e. bacteria, mycoplasmas
Term
Eukaryotic Cells
Definition
-Cell with nucleus, nuclear membrane and DNA
-The Nucleus carries most genes in an eukaryotic cell
i.e. Protista, fungi, animalia, planta
Term
Eukaryotic Cells
Definition
-Nuclear side of envelope lined by nuclear lamina (shape)
-DNA/proteins organized into CHROMATIN
-When dividing chromatin -> chromosomes
- nucleus = chromatin/nucleolus
Term
Cytoplasm
Definition
-Material between plasma membrane/nuclear envelope
->80% water/nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates
Term
Ribosomes
Definition
-Contains rRNA and proteins -> L subunit/S subunit
-Synthesizing L quantities of proteins = saturated with ribo.
Term
Endomembrane System part 1
Definition
-Includes nuclear envelope, E.R., Golgi, Lysosomes, Vacuoles
-In direct contact/connected via vesicles
-Transport vesicles
Term
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Definition
-Lacks ribosomes and plays process in metabolism
-Synthesizes lipids, phospholipids, steroids
-Detoxifies
Term
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Definition
-Abundant in cells secreting proteins
-Secretory proteins packed in transport vesicles
-Proteins synthesized directly into membrane
-Enzymes synthesized phospholipids in cytosol
Term
Golgi Apparatus
Definition
-Transport vesicles from ER -> G.A. modifies contents
-Made up of Cisternae, membranes separates internal from cytosol
- Cis - recieves material by fusing w/ vesicles
- Trans - buds off vesicles that travel to other sites
- Cis -> Trans modifications of products reach final state
Term
Lysosomes
Definition
-Hydrolytic enzymes that digest macromolecules
-Hydrolyze protens, fats, polysaccharides/nucleic acids
-works best @ PH 5, pumps H ions from cytosol -> lumen
-Massive leakage = autodigestion
Term
Phagocytosis
Definition
-When food brought into cell involved w/ lysosome
-Can fuse w/ other organelle/part of cytosol = autophagy
Term
Vacuoles
Definition
-Food, contractile/central
-Contractile = pumping water out (water regulation)
-Tonoplast = selective in solute transport
-Stockpiles proteins deposits in metabolic by products/ strong defensive compounds
-Key in synthesis/hydrolysis of macromolecules.
-
Term
Mitochondria & Chloroplasts
Definition
-Converts NRG
-MITO: Cellular resp = ATP
-CHLORO = photosynthesis
-Dynamic structures can reproduce
-Moves around on tracks in cytoskeleton
Term
Peroxisomes
Definition
-Enzymes that transfer H ions from substrates of oxygen = hydrogen peroxide = Hydrogen peroxide -> water
Term
Cytoskeleton
Definition
-Network of fibres (organizes structure/activities of cell)
-Mechanical support (maintain shape of cell/fibres act as geodesic dome)
-Anchorage for organelles
-Dynamic (breaks apart/reassembles to change cell shape)
Term
Microtubules
Definition
-Composed of protein tubulin
-Responsible for cell shape/mobility, chrome mvmt/organelle mvmt.
-Guides motor proteins
Term
Microfilaments
Definition
-Muscle contraction, cytoplasmic streaming cell motility/cell division
-Intermediate (anchors nucleus + organelles)
Term
Centrosomes/centrioles
Definition
-Microtubules grow out of centrosome
-Centrosome (pair of centrioles each w/ 9 triplets of microtubules (centrioles replicate))
Term
Cillia/flagella
Definition
-Driven by DYENIN -> ATP = NRG
-Anchored by basal body (centriole)
Term
Muscle Cells
Definition
-Actin filaments arranged parallel to one another
-Thicker filaments (motor proteins, myosinn, interdigitate w/ thinner actin filaments)
-Myosin walks along actin filament, pulling stacks of actin fibers
Term
Cytoplasmic Streaming
Definition
-Actin-myosin interactions/sol-gel transformations drive cytoplasmic streaming
Term
Intercellular Junctions: Anchoring
Definition
-2 cells attached by intercellular filaments
Term
Intercellular Junctions: Tight
Definition
-Prevents mvmt of material betwen cells
Term
Intercellular Junction: Gap
Definition
-Intercellular connection
Term
What do cells need to survuve?
Definition
-Complete set of genetic info
-Growth, repair, development
Term
Cell Cycle
Definition
-Activity of cells between divisions
-Grow, adding cytoplasmic constituents
-DNA replicated/divided into two identical daughter cells.
Term
Prokaryotic Cell: Cell Cycle
Definition
-Cell. division called binary fission
-Chromosome = circular loop
-Cell elongates, plasma membrane added between chromosomes
-plasma memb. grows inward
Term
Eukaryotic Cell: Cell Cycle
Definition
-Cell division = mitotic division
-(CHROMOSOMES) Contains almost all gen. info, # varies w/ species
-Interphase & Mitotic division
-Interphase = longest (chromatin)
-G1= size increases/organelles may replicate
-S= DNA synthesis replicated
-G2= division preparation, cell committed to divide
(PMAT) - cytokensis
Term
Chromosome Structures
Definition
-Strands of linear DNA
-46 strands average length 4 cm
Term
Chromatin
Definition
-(BOUND PROTEINS) Protect, package, duplicate, transcript, regulate, modify
-DNA + bound protein = chromatin
-Division phase chromatin become chromosomes (single molecule of DNA)
Term
Mitotic Cell Division
Definition
-Division of somatic cells in eukaryotic organisms
-Ploidy: Specific # of sets
-Mitosis/Meiosis lead to diff ploidy outcomes
-Haploid: One copy of each chromosome (n)
-Diploid: 2 copies (2n)
Term
Prophase
Definition
-Chromatin fibers become tightly coiled chromosomes
-Nucleoli disappear
Term
Prometaphase
Definition
-Nuclear envelope fragments
-Microtubules connect to chromosomes/kinetochores formed
Term
Metaphase
Definition
-Centrosomes @ opposite poles/centromeres on metaphase plate
-Kinetochores of each chromatid connected to other microtubules
Term
Anaphase
Definition
-Paired centromeres separated
-Centromere first
Term
Telophase
Definition
-Daughter nuclei form/nuclear envelope reforms
-Chromatin fibers become less condensed
-Nucleolus reforms
Term
Mitotic Spindle
Definition
-Two microtubules organizing centers
-Spontaneously arise from tubulin dimmers
-MO centre microtubules have opposite polarity
-Meet at equatorial plate
-Chromatids attach via kinetochores
-Pull chromatids appart post-centromere breakdown
Term
Cytokinesis
Definition
-Process of splitting daughter cells apart
-Optional i.e. muscle cells, plant cells
-Actin filaments, contractile ring -> motor protein
-Cell wall -> pinches off but then have to lay down cell wall
Term
Regulation of Cell Cycle
Definition
-Timing/rate of cell div = crucial for development
i.e. skin cells, liver
i.e. nerve/muscle cells do not
-Cell cycle control system
-Molecules trigger/coordinate key events
-Clock regulated by ext. adjustments/internal controls
-G1 checkpoints - restriction point. if not - G0, specialized cells stop reproduction
Term
Internal and External Clues (G1)
Definition
-Kinetochores signal when all connected, if not all connected cell would have diff # of chromosomes
- growth factors in media may be needed
-Cells crowded stop dividing/ animal cells must be anchored to divide
Term
Cancerous Cells
Definition
-Uncontrolled mitotic growth -> cells continously grow
Term
Meiosis
Definition
-Recombination = key
Term
Meiosis: Haploid
Definition
-1n (unfertilized egg/sperm)
-Sperm fuses with egg = DIPLOID ZYGOTE (hap+hap=dip)
-23 chrom to male and 23 to female as well
Term
Meiosis: Diploid
Definition
-2n (almost all body cells)
-46 chromosomes = human cells
-2n = 6 (diploid w/ 6 chromosomes/3 pairs)
-6 chromosomes = 12 chromatids.
Term
Asexual Reproduction
Definition
-All genes from one parent (genetically identical)
-Variations only occur from mutation
Term
Sexual Reproduction
Definition
-1/2 genetic info from one parent and 1/2 from other
-Produces greater variation/recombination
-Evolution requires pre-existing genetic variation
Term
Life Cycles
Definition
-Diagrammatic representation of event sin organisms development/repro
-*Ploidy* levels where meiosis occurs
-Animals = Diplod producing haploid gametes (diploid most of life)
-Plants = alternation per generation (dip/hap or hap/dip)
Term
Sexual Cycles
Definition
-Somatic cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes
-May contain different allele
-Diploid nucleus contains two sets of homologs (2n)
-one set from each parent
Term
Homologous Chromosomes
Definition
-Two chromosomes of given matched pair
-Gene occupy specific loci on a specific chromosomes
-Genes @ homologous loci (genes need not be identical)
Term
Sex Chromosomes
Definition
-One pair of homologous chromosomes = different
-Females have true homologous pair (XX)/males(XY)
-X (179 know genes) and Y (13) called sex chromosomes
-Autosomes = non-sex chromosomes
-XY chromosomes must be separated properly
-Centromeres do not have to be middle varies w/ chromosome
Term
Phases of Meiosis
Definition
-Split into Meiosis 1 (reduction) & Meiosis 2 (division)
-Creates 4 haploid cells where mitosis creates 2
-Reduces 2n -> 1n
-Recombination occurs between 2 non sister chromatids splitting = 4 haploids
Term
Phases of Meiosis I: Prophase I
Definition
-Homologous chrom. pair/condense to form tetrads
-SYNAPSIS= packs homologous chromatids tight
-CHIASMATA= segments of chromosomes traded
-Avg # = 2 (chorthippus parallelus = 5)
-Spindle forms from centromeres
Term
Phases of Meiosis I: Metaphase I
Definition
-Tetrads arranged @ metaphase plate
-Microtubules attached to kinetochore of each tetra
Term
Phases of Meiosis I: Anaphase I
Definition
-Separate/pulled towards opposite poles
-After anaphase chromosomes = 23
Term
Phases of Meiosis I: Telophase I
Definition
-Movement continues until there is haploid set
Term
Phases of Meiosis I: Cytokinesis I
Definition
-In some, nuclei amy reform -> no further replication
Term
Meiosis II: Prophase II
Definition
- Spindle apparatus forms, attaches to kinetochore/moves them
Term
Meiosis II: Metaphase II
Definition
-Sister chromatids arranged @ metaphase plate
Term
Meiosis II: Anaphase II
Definition
-Centromeres of sister chromatids seperate
Term
Meiosis II: Telophase II
Definition
-Separated chromatids arrive @ opposite poles
-Nuclei form around chromatids
Term
Meiosis II: Cytokinesis II
Definition
-@ end of meiosis there are 4 haploid daughter cells.
Term
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
Definition
Meiosis
-Synapsis: homologous chromosomes pair up
-Pairs not individual: homologous chromosomes aligned
-Anaphase I: homologous chromosomes (not sister chromatids), remain attached @ centromere until anaphase II
Term
Genetic Variation
Definition
-Behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis/fertilization responsible for variation
1) Independent assortment-reshuffle various genes
2) Crossing over-Mutations create population's diversity
3) Random fertilization
Term
Independent Assortment
Definition
-Random orientation of tetrads @ metaphase plate
-50% daughter cell - maternal/50% paternal
-Each pair positioned independently
-1st meiotic div results in independent assortment of maternal/paternal chromosomes
Term
Crossing Over
Definition
-Produces recombinant chromosomes - combine genes inherited from each parent
-Begins early in prophase I, portions of two non sister chromatids trade places
-1 sister chromatid may undergo diff patterns of crossing over them it's match
Term
Random Fertilization
Definition
-Any sperm can fuse w/ any egg
-Unique genetic identity
-Ovum=2^23 combos, sperm = 2^23 combos
-Result = (2^23)(2^23) = 1 trillion possible combos
Term
Mendel's Law of Segregation
Definition
-From monohybrid cross work
-Two chromosomes of a homologous pair separate/segregate during metaphase I
Term
Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment
Definition
-Dihybrid cross work
-Independent assortment of alleles occur as various homologous pairs of chromosomes assort independently during anaphase I
Term
Mendelian Problems/Probability
Definition
-(Aa -> P(A) = 1/2, AA -> P(A) = 1)
-1/(# of possible outcomes)
-AB AaBb -> P(AB) = 1/4
Term
Compound Probability
Definition
-1/2 tails + 1/2 tails = 1/4 double tails
Term
Compound Probability: Multiplication Rule
Definition
-P(A and B) = P(A)P(B)
-P(roll 1 - 1st both) = P(A and B) = P(A)P(B) = 1/6 x 1/6 = 1/36
Term
Dihybrid Cross
Definition
-Parent YyRr - Probability gamete carries YR = 1/4
-If F2 we don't have to construct Punnett square - ProbYYRR = 1/16
Term
Dihybrid Cross: Addition Rule
Definition
-Prob of alternate outcomes is P1 + P2
i.e. Prob of same B = 1/4 double traits + 1/4 double heads = 1/2
-Ab or aB
-AaBb - P(Ab) = 1/4
-AaBb - P(aB) = 1/4
-P(Ab or aB) = 1/2
Term
Probability Cont'd
Definition
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