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This is a modification of RNA after transcription, in which introns are removed and exons are joined. This is needed for the typical eukaryotic messenger RNA before it can be used to produce a correct protein through translation.
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Which scientists are responsible for determining DNA was the genetic material? Make sure you understand each experiment discussed in class and the significance of the results.
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Which scientists are responsible for determining the 3D structure of DNA?
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What is the structure of DNA?
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A right-handed double helix, with 10 nucleotides pair per helical turn. Each spiral strand, composed of a sugar phosphate backbone and attached based, is connected to a complementary strand by hydrogen bonding between base pairs A, T, C, G.
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What type of bonding is important to maintain the 3D structure? |
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Definition
Hydrogen bonding is important to maintain the 3D structure of DNA. Also, Van der Waals forces plays an important role for holding the molecules together; only occur in molecules that are close together.
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What are the nucleotides in DNA and what is their structure? |
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Definition
The nucleotides found in DNA are sugar, phosphate and bases,
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Definition
| a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound containing two N atoms at the positons 1,3 |
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What do the designations 3' and 5' mean?
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| this actually refers to the number of carbon atoms that the nucleotides are bound to; the ribose backbone. the ringed sugars have carbon atoms that are numbered 3 at the bottom of the ring anf 5 on the top. |
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what does antiparallel means?
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| DNA is made of antiparallel strands, meaning that while one strands runs from 3' to 5' its complementary strand runs from 5' to 3'. The two strands are parallel, but running in opposite directions. |
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DNA replication is semi-conservative -- can you diagram this type of replication? |
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Definition
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| Steps involved in DNA Replication |
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Definition
DNA Helicases: helps to unwound the DNA strand
DNA binding proteins: attached to unwound the DNA and prevents them from winding back together
DNA polymerase: used to catalyze the elongation of the leading strand and lagging strands
DNA Primase: helps to build the primes
Okazaki Fragments: attached to the completed portion of the lagging strand
DNA Ligase: used to catalyze the reaction |
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Definition
| non-coding sequences of base pairs |
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Definition
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| an experiment describing the ATP Synthase by a way of proton electrochemical coupling |
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| DNA acts as a template for the synthesis of RNA. Only one part of the DNA is transcribed to produce nuclear RNA |
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Definition
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Definition
Two parts:
(1) Transcription
(2) Translation |
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Definition
| a sequence of three adjacent nucleotides constituting the genetic code that determines the insertion of a specific amino acid in a polypeptide chain during protein synthesis |
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Definition
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| three bases that are complementary to a codon in the mRNA. during translation these bases form base pairs with bases of the codon by forming hydrogen bonds |
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Definition
| movement of protons; relaxation of protond, e- at high energy coming from NADH or FADH2, composed of series of components that will pump protons, proton gradient forms an electrochemical gradient |
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| the tendency for a chemical species to be reduced, and is measured in volts at standard conditions. The more positive the potential is the more likely it will be reduced |
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| the process by which plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria use ligh energy to drive the synthesis of organic compounds. |
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| provides the energy and reduced carbon required for the survival of virtually all life |
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Definition
| consists of electron and proton transfer reactions. occur in a complex membrane system that is made up of protein complexes, electrons carriers, and lipid molecules. converts energy into several forms |
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Definition
| consists of the biosynthesis of carbohydrate from CO2. |
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| Steps involved in Light Reaction |
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Definition
| conversion of a photon to an excited electron state, excited electron is then transferred over the antenna molecule |
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Definition
Photosystem I
Photosystem II |
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Definition
| composed of multiprotein complex. uses light energy to mediate the flow of electron in the chloroplast thylakoid membrane of plants. in linear flow, PSII is coupled w/ PSI and produces a pH gradient and in the cyclic flow PSI generates a pH gradient and ATP |
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Definition
| provides energy and reduced carbon needed for plant growth and development, while the plant provides it w/ CO2, H2O, Nitrogen. located in specialized leaf cells; defined by an inner and outer envelope membrane |
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Definition
| known as the photosynthetic membrane that contains most of the proteins required for the light reactions. the proteins required for the fixation and reduction of CO2 are located outside the photosynthetic membrane in the surrounding aqeuous space |
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| PSII uses light energy to drive two chemical reactions-the oxidation of H2O and the reduction of plastoquinone; PSI catalyzes the oxidation of plastocyanin and the reduction of ferrodoxin. it is composed of a heterodimer of proteins that act as ligands for most of the electron carriers |
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Definition
| transported between large protein complexes by small mobile molecules; creates the proton electrochemical potential of the photosynthetic membrane by the two types of reactions-release of proton during the oxidation process and the translation of protons from the outer aqueous phase to the inner aqueous phase by the coupled reactions |
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Definition
| the conversion of proton electrochemical energy into chemical free energy is accomplished by a single protein complex. this enzyme is a phosphorylation reaction, which is the formation of ATP |
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Chemiosmotic Experiment
(Peter Mitchell) |
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Definition
Evidence:
mitochondria generated a H+ gradient (pH)
destroyed H+ gradient-> no ATP
therefore gradient is connected to ATP synthesis |
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| epxlains the utilization order of electron acceptor for respiration |
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| host of protein complexes built to harnest light energy |
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| cyclic photophosphorylation |
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Definition
| electrons are recycled; excited electrons are received by the primary electron acceptor and then transferred |
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| non-cyclic photophosphorylation |
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Definition
| refers to thw ATP generated by protons moved across the Thylakoid membrane during z-scheme |
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Definition
| refers to the process through which gaseous carbon dioxide is converted into a solid compound. |
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| a group of strong covalent bonds between a phosphate group and two 5-carbon rig carbohydrates over two esters. |
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| shows that bacteria can get DNA through a process called transformation--used two strains of pneumoccus; smooth and rough strains. |
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| covers itself with polysaccharide capsule that protects it from the host's immune system |
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Definition
| does not have a protective shield around it and is likely killed by the host's immune system |
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| Hershey & Chase's Experiment |
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| bacterial viruses, called phage were used to demonstrate that DNA is the genetic material. when phage infect bacteria they attach to the surface of the bacterium and inject the DNA into the cell |
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Definition
| describes the mechanism by which DNA is replicated in all known cells. Produces two copies that each contains one of the original strands and one new |
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| produces two copies of the DNA, both containing distinct regions of DNA composed of either both original strands and both new strands. |
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Definition
| leaves the two original DNA template strands together in a double helix and would produce a copy composed of two new strands. |
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| How do we know chemiosmotic coupling drives ATP synthesis? |
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Definition
| if uncoupler prevents ATP synthesis, then an artificial gradient should promote ATP synthesis |
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| Difference between RNA polymerase and DNA polymerase |
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Definition
| RNA: catalyzes the linkage of ribonucleotide; not deoxiribonucleotides; can start the RNA chain w/o a primer; transcription need not to be accurate; not the permanent storage for genetic info. in cells; polymerase makes about 1 mistake for every 10^4 nucleotides and for DNA 1 for every 10^7. |
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Definition
refers to the process by which the info. encoded in DNA sequence is translated into a product that has some effect on a cell or organism.
the final product of a protein tells that gene expression included both transcription and translation |
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| Differences in Transcription of DNA and RNA |
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Definition
| RNA: does not remain H-bond to the DNA template strand; chains are displaced and teh DNA helic reform; molecules are single-stranded; molecules are shorter; polymerase carries out RNA transcription; polymerase catalyzes the formation of the phosphodiester bonds; polymerase moves stepwise along the DNA |
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Definition
| the DNA strand that synthesize in the 5' to 3' direction towards the replication fork |
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| the DNA strand that is discontinuously synthesized against the overall direction of the replication fork; produce Okazaki fragments in the 3' to 5' direction |
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| short RNA segments that is necessary to begin DN replication; only one is necessary for the replication of the leading strand, but many for the lagging |
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Why do electrons flow in one direction
(redox potential graph) |
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| electrons are negatively charged. electricity is similar to osmosis; the movement of electrons from an area of high concentration (neg. charged) to an area of low concentration (pos. charged). |
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| Comparison of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts |
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Definition
Mitochondria: cristae, inner membrane space, outer membrane space, intermembrane space, matrix, DNA, ribosomes
Chloroplast: inner, outer, intermembrane space, stroma, thylakoid space, ribosomes, thylakoid membrane |
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Definition
| sugar phosphate + base = nucleotide |
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Definition
(1) initiator protein binds
(2) helicase attaches
(3) primase binds to first priming sequence
(4) DNA polymerase use primer to initiate
(5) RNA primer made for lagging strand
(6) RNA primer removed
(7) DNA ligase links Okazaki fragments |
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Definition
| begins w/ the initial cooperation of Carbon (carbon fixation); reduces fixed carbon to carbohydrate by the addition of electrons by NADPH+ATP; called the light independent dark reaction; occurs in the stroma; light reactions convert solar energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH |
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| Messelson and Stahl's Experiment |
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Definition
| supported the hypothesis that DNA replication was semiconservative. The double helix separates so that each old strand serves as a template for a new strand. |
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| Steps involved in translation |
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Definition
(1) Initiation-small units of ribosome binds
(2) Elognation-tRNA base pair w/ next codon
(3) Termination- when the ribosome reaches one or more stops. |
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Definition
| an intiator protein needed in the synthesis of RNA |
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Definition
| C6H12O6--> 6CO2 + NADH + FADH + 2ATP + 2GTP |
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| Proteins involved in DNA replicatino |
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Definition
helicase--separate DNA
Single Stranded Binder--keeps DNA single-stranded
DNA gyrase-relaxes the coil
primase-puts down RNA primer
polymerase-polymerizes DNA
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