Term
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Definition
| energy necessary to reach transition state |
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Term
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Definition
| A reactant that binds to an enzyme |
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Term
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Definition
| Commonly found at active sites |
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Term
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Definition
| Metal ion or inorganic molecule. Binding involves some specificity |
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Term
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Definition
| First described as lock and key, but now induced fit where binding distorts the shape of the enzyme and substrate |
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Term
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Definition
| Evidence comes from X-ray crystallography, or X-ray diffraction |
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Term
| Reducing activation energy can involve: |
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Definition
Stressing certain bonds
Donating or accepting protons or electrons |
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Term
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Definition
Usually ends in -ase
Sometimes named for the substrate
Sometimes named for the reaction
The EC system is based on six classes of enzymes that get subdivided |
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Term
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Definition
| Rate: Change in specific quantity or position / change in time. Rate is slope (velocity) Delta Y/ Delta X, change in concentration / certain length of time (units could be mmol/L/s) |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of enzyme activity and what affects it. Pioneered by Michaelis and Menten in the early 20th century |
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Term
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Definition
| Inability of higher substrate concentrations to increase the reaction rate beyond a finite upper value. Higher substrate concentration, higher reaction rate |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Substrate concentration that gives you half of Vmax. Substrate concentration: mmol/L? |
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Term
| Michaelis-Menten equation |
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Definition
| (reaction rate) V = Vmax[S] / Km + [S] |
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Term
| If [S] is much higher than Km... |
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Definition
| Forget Km. V = Vmax[S] / [S] = Vmax |
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Term
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Definition
| When reaction rate is independent of concentration of reactants. Basically a horizontal line. |
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Term
| If [S] is much lower than Km... |
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Definition
| V = Vmax[S] / Km. Rxn rate proportional to substrate concentration (positive slope) |
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Term
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Definition
| A reaction rate that depends on reactant concentration in a simple, straightforward way. |
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Term
| Why positive slope below optimal temperature for enzymes? |
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Definition
| Reactions often sensitive to temperature, with or without enzyme. Speeds up when heated |
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Term
| Why does enzyme reaction rate decrease above optimal temperature? |
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Definition
| Enzyme denatures as temperature increases |
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Term
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Definition
Residues at the active site that must be at right pH to carry right charges or be neutral
Sometimes substrate has components whose charge is determined by pH
Tertiary structure involved ionic bonds. Residues must be ionized |
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Term
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Definition
| Inhibitors can be competitive or non-competitive. Competitive inhibitors compete with the substrate for the active site. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ratio of substrate/inhibitor. Important: causes an increase in Km. Substrate ultimately outcompetes inhibitor. Same effect as reducing enzyme concentration |
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Term
| Non-competitive inhibitors |
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Definition
| Have less enzymes: converts! Decreasing enzyme concentration. Same effect as reducing enzyme concentration |
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Term
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Definition
| Bind the enzyme away from active site. Control many metabolic pathways. Small organic molecule that regulates activity of enzyme when not the substrate or immediate product. Non-competitive inhibitor. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Phosphorylation of Enzyme |
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Definition
| Common covalent modification alters enzyme activity. Need hydroxyl group! Phosphate added to residue with a hydroxyl group on its side chain |
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Term
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Definition
| Phosphorylating enzymes that transfer the phosphate from ATP |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Inactive precursor that activates hydrolysis in some enzymes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Use of integral membrane proteins to control movement of substances across a membrane. |
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Term
| Solutes move across membranes Via: |
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Definition
Simple Diffusion
Movement through Channels (Facilitated Diffusion)
Carrier Mediated Transport
-Primary Active Transport
-2ndry A.T.
- Facilitated Diffusion |
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Term
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Definition
| Diffusion through phospholipid bilayer, unaided by transport proteins. |
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Term
| Three Factors that Affect a Substance's Ability to move across Phospholipid Bilayer: |
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Definition
Size.
Polarity (Polar bonds allow the formation of Hydrogen Bonds with water).
Charge. Net charges allow the formation of Ion Dipole interactions with water |
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Term
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Definition
Depends on Concentration Gradient
Vinward = PdeltaS (diffusion rate - per unit area / per unit time)
Rate of diffusion is a linear function of the concentration gradient. (Net movement more slow when approaching equilibrium) |
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Term
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Definition
| inward flux of a substance (number of molecules moving in per unit area per time) |
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Term
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Definition
| Permeability coefficient, depends on membrane and solute |
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Term
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Definition
| [S]out - [S]in, concentration gradient |
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Term
| Transport Proteins Transport: |
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Definition
| Ions, Molecules with lots of polar bonds (glucose), Water |
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Term
| Transport Proteins Include: |
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Definition
| Channels, Carrier Proteins |
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Term
| Movement Through Channels |
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Definition
Hydrophilic pored lined with hydrophilic amino acids.
Gated channels open and close. Others are always open.
Channels generally carry small things like ions or water. |
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Term
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Definition
| Large channels, found in outer membranes of mitochondria, chloroplasts, gram-negative bacteria. Selectively permeable membrane located in inner membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| Channels that pass water but not ions. |
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Term
| What makes small channels selective? |
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Definition
Diameter of pore
Selective Binding |
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Term
| Enzyme Saturation occurs in transport proteins because: |
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Definition
Channels have high Km compared to enzymes - binding brief and weak.
Indicated that ions bind channels as they pass through |
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Term
| High Km in channel proteins: |
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Definition
| Hard to saturate. Binding is very brief. Binding is very weak. |
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Term
| 1. Hypoosmotic 2. Hyperosmotic |
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Definition
| Low solute to high solute concentration. Tonicity: effect of solution on cell |
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Term
| Carrier Mediated Transport |
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Definition
Via carrier proteins, transporters, or permeases.
Protein binds on one side
Changes configuration
Releases on other side |
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Term
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Definition
| Much lower than channels. Longer, tighter binding in higher affinity. |
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Term
1. Uniport
2. Symport
3. Antiport |
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Definition
1. Transports one substance
2. Transports more than one in same direction
3. Transports more than one in opposite directions |
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Term
| Carrier Mediated Transport divided into Four Types: |
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Definition
Facilitated diffusion
Primary active transport
Secondary active transport
Light driven active transport |
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Term
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Definition
| A substance can bind on one side and be released on the other. High to low concentration |
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Term
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Definition
| Energy source is ATP hydrolysis. Transporters are ATPases (speeds up ATP hydrolysis and couples it to a small endergonic reaction) |
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Term
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Definition
Reversibly phosphorylated.
Most are in plasma membrane
Different types transport various ions
Ex.: Na/K-ATPase- pumps NA out that leaks in channels. Cells become negative. Cl- repelled so it stays out with the Na+. If they stayed, osmotic influx and then lysis. |
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Term
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Definition
| Acidify intracellular compartments, transport H ions. Found in all animal cells. Transports H to vacuoles, has acidic interior. |
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Term
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Definition
Inner membrane of mitochondria, thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts, plasma membrane of some prokaryotes
Energy source: H ions moving down gradient
Endergonic process = ATP synthesis |
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Term
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Definition
ATP binding cassette
Transports all sorts of things, including large molecules. Not just inotganic ions, often hydrophobic
A sublass is MDR-multi drug resistance. Pump out toxins, drugs, etc and can make cancer cells resistant to chemotherapy. Found in eukaryotic cells |
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Term
| Secondary Active Transport |
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Definition
| One substance moved endergonically. Immediate, direct energy source is another one moving exergonically (Na or H)Indirectly, the energy source is ATP. |
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Term
| Light-driven active transport |
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Definition
Found in some archaebacteria
Lowe oxygen or nutrient levels -> low ATP -> can't maintain H gradient with primary active transport -> produce purpple patches full of bacteriorhodopsin -> H gradient that's produces is used to make ATP via F type ATPases
Sunlight -> ATP, but no carbon fixation or reduction. Not phoyosynthesis |
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Term
| What breaks down to make ATP? |
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Definition
| Carbs, fats, some amino acids |
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Term
| Start with glucose, aerobic respiration includes: |
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Definition
Glycolysis (or alternative)
Oxidative decarboxylation (grooming, cmpnd for Kreb's cycle)
Citric Acid Cycle, aka Kreb's cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation |
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Term
| If start with glucose, what gets oxidized/reduced? |
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Definition
Polar parts of molecule already oxidized
Oxygens already slightly reduced
Hydrogens and Carbon already slightly oxidized
C-C, C-H bonds shify and will be oxidized |
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Term
|
Definition
Intact H atoms are not given to O, just their e-
O2 is final e- acceptor |
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Term
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Definition
| Something else serves as final e- acceptor, like H2S |
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Term
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Definition
Glycolysis plus a few more steps. Adds a few steps to regenerate NADH. NADH gets oxidized. NAD+ regenerated from middle carbon in pyruvate.
Acetaldehyde reduced in lactic acid fermentation |
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Term
|
Definition
Glykos = sweet, lysis = split
Takes place in cytosol
Two phosphorylation steps at beginning. Phosphates obtained from ATP, thus kinases are involved |
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Term
| Glycolysis: First Phosphorylation Step |
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Definition
Traps product in cell, Glucose 6-phosphate
Splitting produces two three carbon molecules from.
Gly-6 is oxidation reduction step, Gly-7 is ATP synsthesis step
Top three carbons get oxidized
NAD+ reduced to NADH |
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Term
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Definition
| Carries two e- and on proton from two Hs. The e- are delivered to electron transport chain and eventually oxygen. Another ATP synthesized later |
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Term
| Glycolysis: Substrate Level Phosphorylation |
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Definition
ATP is synthesized in this step. Direct transfer of P to ADP from a phosphorylated intermediate.
In Gly-7, exergonic rxn that drives endergonic ATP synthesis is oxidation of carbon in Gly-6. |
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Term
| Pyruvate oxaidation number of carbons compared to glucose |
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Definition
| Carbons in pyruvate more oxidized than C in glucose |
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Term
|
Definition
No O2 consumes
No CO2 produced
2 ATP consumed
4 ATP produced
2 Net ATP produced
2 NADH produced |
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Term
| Glycolysis: Allosteric Regulation |
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Definition
| Phosphofructokinase inhibited by substrate ATP. Active site has high affinity for ATP, allosteric has low affinity. At low ATP concentrations, ATP binds to active site. At high, both sites bibd and enzyme inhibited. |
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Term
|
Definition
| In between meals, skeletal muscles break down glycogen to pyruvate and releases it. Can't release glucose because it is phosphorylated and won't bind the facilitated diffusion carrier. Liver converts pyruvate into glucose and releases it, providing glucose between meals. Liver does same with lactic acid during anaerobic exercise. |
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Term
|
Definition
Converting Pyruvate to glucose.
High glucose, little pyruvate, favors glycolysis.
Lots of glucose, little pyruvate, gluconeogenesis. Early steps can't be reversed bypassed by enzymes and produce inorganic phosphate rather than ATP. 4 ATP consumed in gluconeogenesis.2 GTPs converted to GDP. |
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Term
| Large Ancestral Eukaryotic Cells performed: |
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Definition
| Fermentation, little ATP. Ancestor of mitochondria performed Etner-Bourodoroff Cycle and Aerobic Respiration. Etner lost. |
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Term
| Hydrogenosomes and Mitosomes |
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Definition
Anaerobic single-celled eukaryotes carry out a few more steps beyond pyruvate and make a little more ATP via substrate-level phosphorylation in these organelles.
Derived from Mitochondria Because: Have inner/outer membranes
MTS Targer proteins to both. |
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Term
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Definition
| Visibly penetrate plant root hairs. Lipophilic substances pass through cell membranes. Cell membranes are fatty. Use RBC to show this as they have no nucleus, mitochondria, organelles... only plasma membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| All proteins have trilaminar appearance. Dark lines could be protein, light space lipid.. but protein-lipid-protein sandwich. Dark lines too thin to be protein. Protein-lipid ratios vary a lot between different membranes |
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Term
|
Definition
Proteins pass though the bilayer or are stuck to the surface
Lipids and proteins move about side-to-side freely
Lipids = fluid, uniform distribution. EQUALLY spaced out everywhere. |
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Term
| Evolution of Fluid Mosaic Model |
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Definition
Many proteins have their movement restricted
Lipids may not form a homogenous soup, but patches of semi solid lipid rafts with more liquid lipids in between |
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Term
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Definition
Proteins float about in liquid sea of lipids
Allows certain proteins to group together |
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Term
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Definition
| Phosphoglycerides and sphingolipids in membrane |
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Term
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Definition
In membrane
Sugar lipids, fatty acid tail - no phosphate |
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Term
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Definition
Cholesterol in animals. Plants and other eukaryotes of other ones
Sterols - with OH- group, rare in prokaryotes |
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Term
| Thin Layer Chromatography |
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Definition
TLC separates components of membrane lipids based on hydrophobicity
Stationary phase is hydrophilic
Mobile phase is hydrophobic
More hydrophobic/ less hydrophilic, further the lipid travels |
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Term
|
Definition
Viscosity
Studied in artificial bilayers. Tm = Transition Temperature
Measure Heat absorption while raising temperature. Melting consumes heat. Melting point: transition temperature |
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Term
|
Definition
| Greater tendency to be in gel state. Favored by long fatty acid tails, saturated fatty acid tails |
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Term
| Add Cholesterol to Artificial Bilayers --> |
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Definition
| no clear Tm. Membrane between gel and liquid. Cholesterol keeps membranes in a state in between gel and fluid and does so over a range of temperatures so membranes never solidift |
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Term
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Definition
| Regulating membrane fluidity in response to changes in temperature |
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Term
| Bacteria Response to Decreasing Temp |
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Definition
Some change length of fatty acid chain. Replace with new chain length, decreasing fatty acid chain length.
Change Membrane composition to prevent freezing
Add double bonds |
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Term
|
Definition
Cholesterol, sphingolipids, and certain proteins form gel-like (more solid) rafts that float in a liquid sea of the other lipids and proteins.
Evidence: Mild detergents dissolve the liquid phase of the membrane, leaving semi-solid rafts intact. |
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Term
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Definition
Evidence from freeze fracture
Particles are evident, uniformly distributed. Look at membranes known to have little protein vs. membranes with many - compare.
Number or particles correlated with abundance of membrane protein
Artificial phospholipid bilayers don't have particles, unless you add protein too
Conclusion: proteins distributed uniformly across cell membrane |
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Term
| Proteins that work together... |
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Definition
| May be held together by being held in a raft, cell signaling proteins in particular. |
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Term
| When ligands present in lipid rafts... |
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Definition
| Receptors proteins remain with cholesterol, sphingolipids, etc. Becomes less soluble: receptor moves into lipid raft when binds to ligand. When not present, receptor proteins can be extracted from lipid raft. |
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Term
| Peripheral Membrane Proteins |
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Definition
| Proteins extracted from other membranes with high salt or deltapH |
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Term
| Electrostatic Interactions |
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Definition
| Opposite charges attracting, disrupted by high salt or change in pH. Peripheral membrane proteins attached to other membranes via these interactions. |
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Term
| Integral Membrane Proteins |
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Definition
| Traditionally defined as those requiring detergents to be dissolved and separated from the lipids. Anchored by hydrophobic/pjilic interactions. 2ndry structure in transmembrane has hydrophobic resisudes |
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Term
| Functions of Membrane Proteins |
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Definition
Enzymes (glucose phosphatase in ER)
Transport meterials across membranes
E- transport
Receptors (hormones)
Intercellular joining: cells connect directly to other cells
Attachment to extracellular matrix (mutated adhesion proteins cause cancer) |
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Term
|
Definition
| may be attached to cytoskeleton, providing cell shape (RBC) |
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Term
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Definition
| RBC small, spherical, and fragile due to mutant cytoskeletal or membrane proteins |
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Term
|
Definition
| Plasma membranes display these. Different forms involve different mutant proteins. Glycolipids make some contribution but most oligosaccharides are attached to glycoproteins. Such glycolipids and glycoproteins are said to be glycosylated: glyolipid or glycoprotein description |
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Term
| Some proteins not free to move around: |
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Definition
May be:
Attached to cytoskeleton
Part of lipid raft. Raft can move but they can't exit.
Restricted by cell-cell junctions (polarized cells have membrane proteins restricted by tight junctions to one part of membrane) |
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Term
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Definition
Different than seeing
The minimum distance that can separate two points that still remain identifiable as separate points
Size of objects is irrelevant; resolution pertains to the space between the objects, not the size of the objects themselves
If distance is too small, impossible to separate and see clearly |
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Term
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Definition
Light microscopy and nothing fancy
Difficult to see unstained
Many stains require whatever is being viewed to be dead |
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Term
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Definition
| stain cells and keep alive, usually doesn't work well |
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Term
| Phase contrast and Differential Interference Contrast |
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Definition
Creates light and dark areas based on density without using stain (can be alive)
In DIC, the steeper the density gradient, the lighter or darker |
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Term
| Video-enhanced Microscopy |
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Definition
| Digital or not, done by adjusting brightness and contrast of the image (similar to TV) |
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Term
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Definition
Use immune system to generate antibodies
Choose what you want to see (mouse tubulin)
INject animal (goat) withwhat you want to locate
Animal produces anyibodies, which are blood proteins that bind to what was injected into animal - goat antibodies bind onto tubulin in mouse cells; fluorescent antibodies could then bind to animal antibody
Incubate slides with tissue sections attached |
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Term
|
Definition
| Able to absorb photons; molecule will absorb UV light and generate light in response |
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Term
|
Definition
Tissue Sections
Preserve tissue (with formaldehyde)
Immerse tissue in alcohol to wash out any water
Xylene (hydro carbon)washes out alcohol)
Several changes of hot liquid wax to replace xylene, and let cool
Must use all steps because not every substance can mix with others
Use microtome to cut waxy specimen into sections that will create a ribbon
Go backwards to get rid of wax, xylene then alcohol then water
Use xylene to permanently attach a coverslip |
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Term
|
Definition
Use electrons instead of light
Electrons shooting through vacuum have wave like characteristics
Much better resolution than can be found with light due to short wavelength |
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Term
| Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) |
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Definition
Black and white because e- have single wavelength
Specimen coated in metal so e- bounce off; lens for e- are magnets since it will cause them to change direction |
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Term
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Definition
| variation of SEM, allows a person to see cell membranes by taking advantage of the fact that phospholipid bilayer will split in predictable places in frozen tissue if struck, coat specimen with metal to create replica |
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Term
| Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) |
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Definition
| Cut ultrathin sections on an ultramicrotome (ultra - prefix always associated with ultramicrotome) measured in nanometers; stain sections with metals that absorb electrons- darker areas in electron dense areas |
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Term
| Attractive Electrostatic Interactions |
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Definition
| Attractive forces between opposite or partial charges |
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Term
|
Definition
| Both parties have net charges; results in ionic bonds |
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Term
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Definition
| Forces between ions and molecules have permanent dipoles (partial charges) Ex., Between ions and water molecules; not H bonds or ionic bonds (between one partial charge and one net charge) |
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Term
| Dipole-dipole interactions |
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Definition
| Two partial charges from two permanent dipole moments; Hydrogen bond if one part is hydrogen |
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Term
|
Definition
Naturally forms as many interactions as possible; can form up to four
Water in liquid molecule averages 3.5 H conds
Water forms 3d cage bonding on to other water molecules
Hydrophobic substance pushed away from water, forms cage around hydrophobic substance |
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Term
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Definition
| Ions that cannot form ion-dipole interactions or H bonds, not attracted to water by electrostatic interactions (forced away) |
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Term
| Na+ and Cl- hydrophilic because... |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
Spheres of water surrounding each ion
Ion-dipole interactions constantly re-breaking and reforming.
Water: ion-dipole interaction |
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Term
| Glucose hydrophilic because.. |
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Definition
| Electrostatic interaction with water: dipole-dipole (H bonds) |
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Term
|
Definition
Phospholipid bilayer with proteins
Inner core is hydrophobic
Two monolaters, called leaflets. Each monolayer is called a face |
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Term
|
Definition
| p-face (protoplasmic: cytoplasm plus material from nucleus) |
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Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
| Passing through pure phospholipid bilayer |
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Definition
Lipophilic substances (strong attraction to fat)
Few polar bonds, given size (Gases, hydrocarbons, ethyl alcohol)
Would NOT pass through: Anything charges, anything with lots of polar bonds (glucose needs transport proteins)
Occasionally water can move though, needs a protein transport usually |
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Term
| Selective Permeability due to: |
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Definition
Hydrophobic interior
Specificity of transport proteins |
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Term
|
Definition
Almost any molecule with carbon
Carbon has four valence electrons (6 total) must form four bonds to fill outer shell
Covalent bonds with carbon are strong, as indicated by bond energy |
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Term
|
Definition
Energy needed to break a bond
Greater the bond energy, the more stable the bond
Carbon often used as backbone for many molecules due to strong bonds |
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Term
|
Definition
C and H, nothing else
Properties of all: Flammable, hydrophobic
Ex: mineral oil, vasoline, baby oil |
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Term
|
Definition
Dehydration reactions
Some functional groups linked to each other by this
Separated by hydrolysis |
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Term
|
Definition
Long chains of building blocks
Chains called polymers, individuals called monomers
Monomers are small, water soluble organic molecules with molecular weights less than 350 Daltons
Monomer part of polymer called residue |
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Term
|
Definition
Polymers of amino acids
All amino acids used to make proteins have certain general structure of an amino and carboxyl group with a side chain
Amino acids are categorized by properties of side chains
Linked together by condensation reaction resulting in amide linkage or peptide bond |
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|
Term
Dipeptide
Oligopeptide
Polypeptide |
|
Definition
Two amino acids together
A short polymer
Long polymer of amino acid residues |
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Term
|
Definition
| 3D shape of protein. Results from primary and higher level structure |
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Term
|
Definition
| Sequence of amino acid residues, read from N to C terminus |
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Term
|
Definition
Simple folding that occurs based on H bonds bw different regions of backbone
Alpha-helix: form membrane-spanning segments
Beta-pleated sheet: strands can be parallel or antiparallel |
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Term
|
Definition
| Protein region after folding. Small, common domains are called motifs. Usually associated with certain functions |
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Term
|
Definition
Higher-level folding, largely dependent on strong and weak bonds between side chains
Allow for more complex folds
Hydrophilic regions on outside, phobic in |
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Term
|
Definition
Has Quarternary structure with subunits held together by strong and weak bonds (disulfide, H, ionic, and Van der Waals)
Multiple polypeptides coming together
Dimer: two Trimer:: three, etc
Homo: same subunits Hetero: different
Wild-type most common, mutant any less common
Differences in primary structure matter a lot (sickle cell), a little, or not at all |
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Term
|
Definition
Monomers that make up nucleic acids in three parts
Nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, phosphate group |
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Term
|
Definition
Purines: two rings (Adenine, Guarine)
Pyrimidines: One ring (Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil)
Just base and no sugar: nucleoside (Adenosine, Guanosine, Cytidine, Uridine, Deoxuthymidine) |
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Term
|
Definition
Five Carbon Sugar
Note numbering of Carbons on sugar |
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Term
|
Definition
| Has OH- on corner of pentose, Deoxyribose has H- |
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Term
|
Definition
Name of nucleoside followed by number of phosphate groups
ATP = adenosine triphosphate |
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Term
|
Definition
Polymers of nucleic acids
Backbone with carbons attached to the phosphates
Sequence always reads from 5' end to 3' end
Specificity is due to number of hydrogen bonds that form bw nitrogenous bases
Double stranded nucleic acids always antiparallel (run in opposite direction) |
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Term
|
Definition
Monomer of carb
Two: disaccharide
Few: oligo "
Many: poly "
Name for classes and specific carbs often use -ose suffix |
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Term
|
Definition
Most monosac. have three (triose), five (pentose), or six (hexose) C's
All Carbs have hydroxyl groups, all are alcohols
In linear, straight-chain form,there is always a carbonyl group: can be referred to as either aldose or ketose (aldehyde or ketone sugars) |
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|
Term
| Ring forms in carbs common |
|
Definition
| Depending on carbonyl group, either alpha or beta ring forms exist. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Monomers linked via dehydration rxn and their hydroxyl groups
Linkages in carbs called this
Linkages also described as alpha or beta depending on structure of monosac. in the drawings |
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Term
|
Definition
Common:
Sucrose, table sugar
Maltose, malt sugar (beer)
Lactose, milk sugar
Must be digested to monosaccharides by enzymes to be absorbed |
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Term
|
Definition
Serve either storage or structural functions
Plants store starch, animals store glycogen
Involve mostly alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds
Branches involve 1-6 linkages
Glycogen is highly branched; starch is made up of amylose (unbranched) and amylopectin (branched) |
|
|
Term
| Carbs stored in small number of large molecule because: |
|
Definition
Water would enter cell if many small molecules
Facilitated diffusion could keep small molecules from entering cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Structural polysacch with beta 1-4 linkages |
|
|
Term
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Definition
Involved in separating residues of polysacch - our digestive system does this by breaking starch and glycogen down into glucose
Cellulose can't be hydrolyzed or absorbed by human body |
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Definition
Technically not monomers or polymers
Heterogenous category of cellular components resemble one another due to solubility properties rather than chemical structures
Hydrophobic or amphipathic |
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Definition
| Hydrocarbon tail and carboxyl group, amphipathic |
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Definition
Without double bonds
Solid at room temp: fats |
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Definition
Has double bonds, causes kinks in chain
In nature, found in cis configuration.. causes kink
Unsaturated triaglycerols tend to be liquid because they don't pack well due to the kinks from double bonds
Liquid at room temp: oils |
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Term
| Triaglycerol or Triglycerides |
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Definition
1 glycerol and three fatty acids
Glycerol is alcohol
Linkage bw glycerol and fatty acids is an ester linkage, formed by condensation rxn (broken by hydrolysis) |
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Definition
Contain phosphoglycerides and sphingolipids
Both are membrane components
Both contain phosphate and a charged or polar end, hydrophobic |
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Definition
| contain glycerol, two fatty acids, phosphate, and a charged or polar end |
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Definition
| Similar but with sphingosine in place of glycerol; form amide linkages |
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Definition
Membrane components, oligosacchs in place of phosphate
Ex. Blood Groups
Function is unclear |
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Definition
Four ringed structures
Rare in prokaryotes
Cholesterol is a component of animal cell membranes (none in plants)
Other eukaryotes have cholesterol like molecules
Cholesterol may be important in the formation of lipid rafts, not in regulating of membrane fluidity
Sterols are steroids with hydroxyl groups |
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Definition
| Potential energy is lost, perhaps into kinetic energy generating heat (exothermic rxn) |
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Definition
Potential energy stored in chemical bonds (heat content)
C-H bonds lots
O=C less
O-H, O-O bonds similar amounts, are ignored
Enthalpy decreased, released as heat into atmosphere
E- move toward more EN atom, energy released and atom more stable |
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Definition
PE combined from enthalpy and order
Free energy increases, never spontaneous
If decreases, ALWAYS spontaneous
Change in G = Change in H(enthalpy) - Temp * Change in S (order)
If delta G > 0, endergonic, not spontaneous
If < 0, exergonic, spontaneous, releases energy |
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Definition
synthesizing large molecules from small ones
Endergonic because lots of little molecules have more entropy than a few big ones (anabolic steroids build up body) |
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Definition
| Breaking large molecules into small ones (exergonic) |
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Term
| Endergonic rxns can occur if... |
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Definition
| There is an energy source, source is generally a larger exergonic reaction that is linked to the endergonic reaction |
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Term
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Definition
Combining a large exergonic reaction with a smaller endergonic reaction so the two are exergonic and spontaneous
Assemble one large chemical reaction
Exergonic reaction has the larger free energy change, the net reaction will be exergonic
Examples of ATP hydrolysis driving other endergonic reactions include membrane transport and cell motility |
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Term
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Definition
| O more EN than P atoms, in ATP three P atoms repel each other (like charges want to separate) |
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Term
| More resonance and stabilization |
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Definition
Resonance exists when there is more than one valid Lewis structure for a molecule
The more the charges spread out through a resonance structure, the more stable the structure
O in phosphoanhydride and phosphoester bonds can't participate in resonance stabilization
ATP: three O participate
ADP + Pi: 6 O participate |
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