Term
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Definition
| The protein network on the inside of the cell membrane much like a cytoskeleton around the edge of the cell. Has spectrin fibres connecting different anchor proteins. |
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Term
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Definition
| These are the transport packages for digestive enzymes from the golgi apparatus to the lysosomes. |
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Term
| What makes up 30% of all globular protein make up? |
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Definition
| Protein turns and twists. These are what gives the globular proteins their structure and what makes them different from the fibrous proteins. |
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Term
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Definition
| These are protein molecules that make sure that proteins will fold properly. They can fold and join up different polypeptide chains and this is what makes the proteins have specific functions. |
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Term
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Definition
| It is the different areas of a protein but still on the same polypeptide chain.Different domains can have different properties which overall adds up to the proteins complete function |
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Term
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Definition
| They are complex structures that secondary structures can produce when interacting specifically to produce. Such as beta sheet barrels and alpha helix corner/turn. |
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Term
| What form of isomers are ALL natural isomers in? |
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Definition
The L isomer. Not the D isomer, the L isomer.
(Optical isomers) |
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Term
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Definition
Sodium Decadyl Sulphate.
It is able to react with a folded negatively charged protein to cover it in negative charge. Used in gel electrophoresis so that all proteins travel towards the anode. |
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Term
| How to determine the structure of a protein? |
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Definition
X-ray crystallography allows us to create electron density map and work out protein backbone and then structure.
Nuclear magnetic resonance allows us to work out the H positions and their bonds to work out overall structure |
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Term
| If the forward reaction has a negative ∆G value then.. |
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Definition
| The forward reaction is exothermic |
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Term
| If the forward reaction has a positive ∆G value then.... |
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Definition
| The forward reaction is endothermic |
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Term
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Definition
| Gibbs free energy. Represents the total energy in a system and can show energy changes. |
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Term
| What is proteolytic activation? |
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Definition
| When an enzyme is produced by an active suppressor is added as the enzyme is digestive and destructive. Therefore the suppressor is added until the enzyme is required and the proteolytic activation will remove the suppressor so the enzyme is activated. |
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Term
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Definition
| It is the maximum velocity/work rate of an enzyme. |
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Term
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Definition
The michaleis constant, it represent the concentration of a substrate at half of the maximum reaction rate of the enzyme?
It tells us the concentration of substrate available and how tightly an enzyme will bind to a substrate. |
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Term
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Definition
The rate at which a given enzyme is working.
It can be used to see the changes in environment too as the V will go up or down if the enzyme is favourable or unfavourable environments. |
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Term
| What is the Lineweaver-Burk plot graph? |
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Definition
A plot of 1/Substrate concentration on the x axis and then 1/V on the y axis.
It can be used to find the -1/Km value where the line of best fit intercepts the x axis and the 1/Vmax is where the line of best fit will intercept the y axis. |
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Term
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Definition
| A ball of phospholipids that organise themselves due to their amphipathic structure in a liquid medium and will only form when the surroundings are at a specific surfactant concentration. |
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Term
| What is the Critical Micelles Concentration? |
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Definition
| The specific concentration of surfactants that has to be in place for the formation of a micelles. |
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Term
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Definition
When a molecule has both polar a non polar groups.
A phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule. |
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Term
| What are other polar heads that may be present on a phospholipid instead of phosphate? |
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Definition
| Choline, Ethanolamine and Serine |
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Term
| Why do majority of membrane proteins never leave the membrane? |
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Definition
| They are amphipathic molecules and their middle segment that s burned in the membrane is hydrophobic and will not leave the bilayer. |
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Term
| What is band 3 protein in the erythrocyte cell membrane? |
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Definition
| It is the anion channel and is very involved in the moving of oxygen in and out of the tissue. |
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Term
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Definition
| These are sites of high transport and communication protein and cholesterol concentration. In the membrane they have been found to have more active sites than the other part of the skeleton for signalling and endocytosis. |
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Term
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Definition
| It is a complex molecule that is able to carry potassium ions through membrane walls. This is because it is amphipathic and it has hydrophobic outside and can move through. |
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Term
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Definition
| It is a channel for potassium ions which supposedly slides to open. |
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Term
| What is the nernst equation? |
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Definition
It describe the relationship between the voltage across a membrane and the solute gradient.
It represents the magnitude of a membrane potential at equilibrium or at any point. |
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Term
| In the Nernst equation, what do the constants roughly add up to? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
The ion gradient of an ion is used to drive the transport of another ion that has not got enough of a gradient and the two ions cross together
Also known as secondary active transport. |
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Term
| What is secondary active transport? |
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Definition
| It is when a ion gradient is formed by active transport to use for coupled carrier transport which only works due to the high ion gradient. This coupled transport then uses a carrier to get across the membrane. This career coupled transport is called secondary active transport as the primary active transport was to produce the ion gradient in the first place. |
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Term
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Definition
| When two membrane transport proteins from two cells bond and a channel former between two cell cytosols. Used for cell to cell communication. |
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Term
| What is a Signal/Leader Protein? |
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Definition
| A small protein sequence will bind to a larger protein and then will attach to a larger molecule (the one that needs to enter the mitochondrial matrix) and the signal protein will bind to a receptor on the mitochondrial outer membrane to allow a channel big enough to open and using a lot of ATP the cell that was needed in the cell is release and assembles and then protease removes the signal protein from the peptide chain and are all separated in the matrix of the mitochondrion. |
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Term
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Definition
| A Transporter Outer Membrane. A transport protein complex in the mitochondrial outer membrane. |
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Term
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Definition
| A Transporter Inner Membrane. A transport protein complex in the mitochondrial inner membrane. |
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Term
| What is a clatharin coated pit? |
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Definition
| It is what is used for endocytosis. It has inner receptors that are embedded into the cell membrane, cargo molecules will bind to these receptors and then the the clatharin coated pit will close up into a ball type shape, taking the membrane with the receptors in with it and then will love not the cell carrying the cargo molecules and then it will breakdown and release the molecules into the cytosol. A molecule called dynamin is used to cut of the membrane with the membrane taken in the clatharin coated pits. Not all endocytosis is done this way. Cargo molecules can be LDLs. |
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Term
| What are the steps of Glycolysis? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the basic structure steps of glycolysis? |
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Definition
Glucose -> Fructose 1,6-biphosphate -> 2x glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate -> 2x Pyruvate
NET of 2 ATP and 2 NADH molecules produced |
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Term
| What are the to glucose phosphorylation enzymes? |
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Definition
Hexokinase - In the brain
Glucokinase - in the liver
They both phosphorylate the glucose in the first step of glycolysis |
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Term
| What anticancer drug could be administered that inhibits glycolysis? |
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Definition
| Careful dosage off arsenic will block the between glycoaldehyde 3-phosphate and the pyruvate. |
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Term
| How does pyruvate enter the Krebs/citric cycle? |
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Definition
| Enters the mitochondrial matrix and then is decarboxylated by oxygen to form CO2 and then NAD+ dehrydrogenates the molecule to form NADH and then the molecule attaches to the Coenzyme A and Acetyl CoA is put into the Krebs cycle. |
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Term
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Definition
1 ATP
1 FADH2
3 NADH + 3 H+
2 CO2
2 e- to the electron transport chain
1 GTP |
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Term
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Definition
Loss of electrons and loss of hydrogen
NADH --> NAD+ |
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Term
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Definition
Gain of electrons and gain of hydrogen
NAD+ --> NADH |
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Term
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Definition
| FADH is an important hydrogen carrier and its form of FAD is reduced and two hydrogens are added to form FADH |
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Term
| What is succinate dehydrogenase? |
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Definition
It is an enzyme that dehydrogenases the succinate molecule in the Krebs cycle to form FADH2 and Fumarate.
This physically occurs in the electric transport chain and is represented with a Q as it is a ubiquinone. |
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Term
| Which way will an electron jump on the redox scale? |
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Definition
| It will jump from a low to a high potential. This means that a low potential pair has a lower affiliation. |
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Term
| What did Peter Mitchell bring into the world of science? |
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Definition
| He brought the theory of oxidative phosphorylation |
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Term
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Definition
| It is the special case of active membrane transport |
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Term
| What is the Nernst Equation in simplest form? |
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Definition
Eh = Em - Log(reduced/oxidised)
Eh being the redox potential
Em being the midpoint potential |
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Term
| What is the path of electrons in the electron transport chain? |
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Definition
Complex I -> Complex II -> CoQ -> Complex III -> Cyt -> Complex IV
Complex I - NADH oxidoreductase
ComplexII - Succinate oxidoreductase
Complex III - Ubiquinol oxidoreductase
Complex IV - Cytochrome reductase |
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Term
| What is the calvin cycle? |
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Definition
It is the cycle in the chloroplasts that takes in CO2 and adds it to RuBP to form 3-Phosphoglycerate and then this form the starch and fatty acids and sucrose.
This cycle continues and receives the ATP and NADPH from the photosynthesis reaction for energy and reducing power |
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Term
| What is the path of electrons in the photosynthesis electron transport chain? |
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Definition
| Broken from H2O being split -> Into Photosystem II -> Platoquionone -> cytochrome -> Plastocyanin -> Photosystem I -> Ferredoxin -> Ferrodoxin NADP reductase, this is where it is added to a NADP and H+ molecule to reduce NADP to NADPH which gives it a higher redox potential and then goes to the calvin cycle |
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Term
| What do plastoquinones do? |
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Definition
| They are insoluble in water but soluble in membranes so they are used in electron transport chains to move electrons to proteins |
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Term
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Definition
This is the proton motive force.
∆p = -∆ψ + ∆pH
∆ψ = The Electrical gradient
∆pH = The distribution of H+ ions over across the membrane |
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Term
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Definition
This is the leak of protons from the intermembrane space back into the matrix and lower the proton gradient for the ATPase. Said to have possible evolved to limit the ∆p.
The proton leak is around 20-30% |
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Term
| How can you measure the mitochondrial respiration rates? |
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Definition
| Using a polargraphic oxygen electrode. Uses a platinum and silver electrode and the oxygen that comes into contact with the electrode is reduced and the current passed on is proportional to the partial pressure of O2 and is recorded on PC |
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Term
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Definition
| Dinitrophenol which is an uncoupler an increases metabolic rate largely. |
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Term
| What is the pH in mitochondria? |
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Definition
| The pH is low due to the high concentration of H+ ions. It is lower in the cytosol because of the being actively pumped into the cytosol despite theatres action and the basal leak. The low pH drives H+ back into matrix which reinstates the effect of the membrane potential. |
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Term
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Definition
| It is the Reactive Oxygen Species. They are chemical reactive molecule containing Oxygen. These are used in normal cell biology and cell signalling but a build up can be damaging. |
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Term
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Definition
| Uncharged molecules with an unpaired electron. These cause damage to cells. High levels of free radicals will cause increased rate of cell damage an cell death. |
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Term
| What is the effect of ROS on eye? |
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Definition
| Caractognesis and retinal damage |
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Term
| What is the effect of ROS on Skin? |
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Definition
| Dermatitis and ageing pigment |
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Term
| What is the effect of ROS on Heart? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the effect of ROS on joints? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the effect of ROS on lung? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the effect of ROS on Brain? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the effect of ROS on gastro intestinal system? |
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Definition
| Hepatitis and liver injury |
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Term
| What is the effect of ROS on teeth? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the effect of ROS on Vessels? |
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Definition
| Atherosclerosis and vasospasms |
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Term
| What is the effect of ROS on multiple organs? |
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Definition
| Cancer can arise from high concentrations of reactive oxygen species |
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Term
| What are the specifics with transmission electron microscopy? |
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Definition
| Resolution 2-20nm, specimens fixed, dehydrated and stained with heavy metals, also freeze-fracture can be used instead |
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Term
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Definition
| Like a micelles but with a phospholipid bilayer instead of just one layer of phospholipids |
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Term
| What are the specifics of a Scanning electron microscopy? |
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Definition
| Resolution 10nm, samples fixed, dehydrated, and stained with metal, normally gold |
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Term
| How many cells does the average human have? |
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| An enzyme used to tenderise cheap steak form papaya. |
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Term
Oxidoreductase
Transferase
Hydrolase
Lyase
Isomerase
Ligase
Polymerase |
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Definition
Oxidise/reduce
transfer chemical group
Hydrolytic cleavage
Remove chemical group
Rearrangement
Joining
Polymer synthesis |
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Term
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Definition
| An enzyme that is used to bind to protein based structures together in cooking. (Meat glue) |
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Term
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Definition
| Given to stroke victims as it is able to phosphorylate the human plasminogen to plasmin which is able to quickly breakdown the clots int he blood. The enzyme is however seen as foreign by antibodies and is therefore resisted. This is why it is replaced with tPA. |
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Term
| What happens when you expose pure protein to concentrated urea? |
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Definition
The protein completely unfolds and denatures.
But when you remove the urea the protein goes back to the original shape |
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Term
| How can you use enzymes as an anti drug for cancer? |
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Definition
| Cancer cells have a form of Pyruvate kinase called PKM2 and this has medium activity as to balance the substrates to be able to continue functioning. You can engineer a PKM2 activator to stimulate faster pyruvate production to run the cancerous cells out of product so no cell growth can occur |
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Term
| How many types of cell are there in humans? |
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| It is a sugar based structure of acting round some cells that will provide chemical protection and provides information for recognition of cell to cell communication. |
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Term
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Definition
| It is the act of taking pyruvate and building it up to form glucose-6-phosphate which can then enter the blood for transport to the target tissue |
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Term
| What is a GPCR and how does Ca2+ get involved? |
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Definition
| They are G protein coupled receptors. Large group of '7TM receptors' and they are involved with opening Ca2+ channels when stimulated. They can also be stimulated by Ca2+ ions as well as many other things and then the receptors induce actions of alpha protein messengers in the cell. |
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Term
What the stage of a cell cycle and how long does it take?
Where are the checkpoints? |
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Definition
G1 - 6-12hrs
S - 6-8hrs
G2 - 3-4hrs
Mitosis - 1hr
Total - Around 24 hrs (can be much faster
major checkpoint close to end of G1 and then smaller at G2 and M |
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Term
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Definition
A gene that encodes for key regulators in the cell cycle known as protein kinases. Kinases are phosphorilators.
This version is presnt in budding yeast
Another version is CDC2 which is preset in fission yeast.
Human equivalent is CDK1.
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Term
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Definition
| It is a gene that code for a protein kinase that regulates the cell cycle. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cyclins are small proteins in the cell that will regulate the cell cycle regulatory proteins (protein kinases). They occur during periods of the cell cycle and are then disintegrated when not in use |
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Term
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Definition
Cyclin Dependent Kinases.
These are the protein kinase phosphorilators that regulate the cell cycle |
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Term
| How many CDKs control the human cell cell cycle and how many cyclins control those CDKs? |
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Definition
6 types of CDK
11 types of cyclin |
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Term
| What does penicillin bind to when in the cell? |
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Definition
| Bacterial transpeptidase (DD-transpeptidase) |
|
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Term
| What is Differential interference contrast microscopy? |
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Definition
| Uses rate of change in refractive index. Produces apparent 3D images |
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Term
| What does Clavulanic acid bind to and what does it do? |
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Definition
| It binds to ß-lactamse and inhibits its action. ß-lactamase is the reason for penicillin resistance in a lot of bacteria so if they work together, penicillin and clavulanic acid are better at destroying bacteria. |
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Term
| Confocal scanning light microscopy |
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Definition
| Uses laser beam to scan successive single planes of specimen stained with florescent stain |
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Term
| All natural amino acids are in the ... isomer form? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What is meant by the term augmentin? |
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Definition
| It is when two enzymes work together |
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Term
| What is the allosteric site? |
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Definition
| Non competitive enzyme interaction in which a molecule different to the substrate will bind to and will change the active site shape for example for good or for bad. |
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