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| have a mutual relationship or connection, in which one thing affects or depends on another. |
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| a factor or characteristic that is associated with an increased risk of developing a condition |
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| If the risk factor can be changed it is considered a variable risk factor |
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| The first type is a risk factor that cannot be shown to change |
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| the risk factor, when it is manipulated, does not change the risk of the outcome |
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| A risk factor has a causal effect on a disease when the disease would not have occurred in the absence of the risk factor |
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| a characteristic that must exist for a disorder to occur |
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| a condition that guarantees the occurrence of a disorder. |
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| increases the probability of a disorder developing but is neither necessary nor sufficient for the disorder to occur. |
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| reinforcing contributory cause |
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a condition that tends to maintain maladaptive behavior that is already occurring.
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| a psychological theory that attempts to explain a disorder, or its trajectory, as the result of an interaction between a predispositional vulnerability, the diathesis, and a stress caused by life experiences |
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| a predisposition toward developing a disorder that can derive from biological, psychological, or sociocultural causal factors. |
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| the response or experience of an individual to demands that he or she perceives as taxing or exceeding his or her personal resources |
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| decrease the likelihood of negative outcomes among those at risk |
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| the ability to adapt successfully to even very difficult circumstances |
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| developmental psychopathology |
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Definition
| concentrates on determining what is abnormal at any point in development by comparing and contrasting it with the normal and expected changes that occur in the course of development. |
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| biopsychosocial viewpoint |
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| acknowledges that biological, psychological, and social factors all interact and play a role in psychopathology and treatment. |
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| very long molecules of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that are present at various locations on chromosomes. |
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| the chain-like structures within a cell nucleus that contain the genes. |
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| they are influenced by multiple genes or by multiple polymorphisms of genes, with any one gene having only very small effects |
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A person’s total genetic endowment |
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| The observed structural and functional characteristics that result from an interaction of the genotype and the environment |
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| genotype–environment interaction |
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Definition
| genetic factors are not necessary and sufficient to cause mental disorders but instead can contribute to a vulnerability or diathesis to develop psychopathology that only happens if there is a significant stressor in the person’s life |
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| genotype–environment correlation |
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| When the genotype shapes the environmental experiences of a person |
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field that focuses on studying the heritability of mental disorders (as well as other aspects of psychological functioning):
(1) the family history method
(2) the twin method
(3) the adoption method |
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| family history (or pedigree) method |
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Definition
| requires that an investigator observe samples of relatives of each proband or index case (the subject, or carrier, of the trait or disorder in question) to see whether the incidence increases in proportion to the degree of hereditary relationship. |
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| the second approach used to study genetic influences on abnormal behavior. |
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| the percentage of twins sharing the disorder or trait |
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| the third method used to study genetic influences, capitalizes on the fact that adoption creates a situation in which individuals who do not share a common family environment are nonetheless genetically related. |
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| Shared environmental influences |
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Definition
those that would make children in a family more similar, whether the influence occurs within the family (e.g., family discord and poverty) or in the environment (e.g., two high-quality schools, with one twin going to each).
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| Nonshared environmental influences |
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| those in which the children in a family differ |
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| studies of mental disorders capitalize on several currently known locations on chromosomes of genes for other inherited physical characteristics or biological processes (such as eye color or blood group). |
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Definition
| start with two large groups of individuals, one group with and one group without a given disorder. Researchers then compare the frequencies in these two groups of certain genetic markers that are known to be located on particular chromosomes (such as eye color or blood group). If one or more of the known genetic markers occur with much higher frequency in the individuals with the disorder than in the people without the disorder, the researchers infer that one or more genes associated with the disorder are located on the same chromosome |
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| flexibility of the brain in making changes in organization and function in response to pre- and postnatal experiences, stress, diet, disease, drugs, maturation, and so forth. |
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| developmental systems approach |
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Definition
| acknowledges that genetics influences neural activity, which in turn influences behavior, which in turn influences the environment, but also that these influences are bidirectional. |
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Definition
| a tiny fluid-filled space between the axon endings of one neuron (the presynaptic neuron) and the dendrites or cell body of another neuron (the postsynaptic neuron). |
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| chemical substances that are released into the synapse by the presynaptic neuron when a nerve impulse occurs |
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| Neurons that are sensitive to a particular neurotransmitter tend to cluster together, forming neural paths between different parts of the brain |
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| five different kinds of neurotransmitters |
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Definition
(1) norepinephrine
(2) dopamine
(3) serotonin
(4) glutamate
(5) gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) |
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Definition
| synthesized from a single amino acid |
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| Medications that oppose or inhibit the effects of a neurotransmitter on a postsynaptic neuron |
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| Medications that facilitate the effects of a neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic neuron |
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| chemical messengers secreted by a set of endocrine glands in our bodies |
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| the master gland of the body, producing a variety of hormones that regulate or control the other endocrine glands |
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| hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (hpa) axis |
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| our central stress response system. |
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| refers to a child’s reactivity and characteristic ways of self-regulation, which is believed to be biologically programmed. |
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| three important dimensions of adult personality |
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Definition
(1) neuroticism or negative emotionality
(2) extraversion or positive emotionality
(3) constraint (conscientiousness and agreeableness |
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| lies between two other variables and helps explain the relationship between them |
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| the basic emotional and psychic energy of life |
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| constructive drives primarily of a sexual nature and which constitute the libido |
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| destructive drives that tend toward aggression, destruction, and eventual death |
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| the source of instinctual drives and is the first structure to appear in infancy |
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| refer to almost anything pleasurable, from eating to painting |
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| engaging in completely selfish and pleasure-oriented behavior, concerned only with the immediate gratification of instinctual needs without reference to reality or moral considerations |
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| the id can generate mental images and wish-fulfilling fantasies |
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| mediates between the demands of the id and the realities of the external world |
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| secondary process thinking |
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| concern is focused on the environment and consequences rather than the satisfaction of only the self |
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| the ability of the mind to assess the reality of the external world, and to act upon it accordingly |
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| the outgrowth of internalizing the taboos and moral values of society concerning what is right and wrong. |
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| a mental struggle arising from the clash of incompatible or opposing impulses, wishes, drives, or external demands. |
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| generalized feelings of fear and apprehension |
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| Discharging pent-up feelings, often of hostility, on objects less dangerous than those arousing the feeling |
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| Attaching oneself in an unreasonable or exaggerated way to some person, or arresting emotional development on a childhood or adolescent level. |
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| Attributing one’s unacceptable motives or characteristics to others. |
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| Using contrived explanations to conceal or disguise unworthy motives for one’s behavior. |
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| Preventing the awareness or expression of unacceptable desires by an exaggerated adoption of seemingly opposite behavior. |
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| Retreating to an earlier developmental level involving less mature behavior and responsibility. |
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| Preventing painful or dangerous thoughts from entering consciousness. |
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Channeling frustrated sexual energy into substitutive activities.
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| During the first 2 years of life, the mouth is the principal erogenous zone: An infant’s greatest source of gratification is sucking, a process that is necessary for feeding. |
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| From ages 2 to 3, the anus provides the major source of pleasurable stimulation during the time when toilet training is often going on and there are urges both for retention and for elimination. |
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Definition
From ages 3 to 5 or 6, self-manipulation of the genitals provides the major source of pleasurable sensation.
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| From ages 6 to 12, sexual motivations recede in importance as a child becomes preoccupied with developing skills and other activities. |
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| After puberty, the deepest feelings of pleasure come from sexual relation |
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| five psychosexual stages of development |
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Definition
1. oral stage
2. anal stage
3. phallic stage
4. latency period
5. genital stage |
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| irrational protective measures |
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Definition
| He longs for his mother sexually and views his father as a hated rival |
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| each young boy also fears that his father will punish his son’s lust by cutting off his penis. (see Oedipus Complex) |
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| It is based on the view that each girl desires to possess her father and to replace her mother. |
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| when a girl wishes she could be more like her father and brothers |
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| when the ego does not function adequately to control or delay impulse gratification or does not make adequate use of defense mechanisms when faced with internal conflicts |
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| a variation of psychoanalytic theory that diverges from Sigmund Freud's belief that humans are motivated by sexual and aggressive drives, suggesting instead that humans are primarily motivated by the need for contact with others—the need to form relationships |
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| interpersonal perspective |
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| that psychopathology is rooted in the unfortunate tendencies we have developed while dealing with our interpersonal environments |
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| explains how the parent-child relationship emerges and influences subsequent development |
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| views human nature as basically “good.” Paying less attention to unconscious processes and past causes, it emphasizes present conscious processes and places strong emphasis on people’s inherent capacity for responsible self-direction |
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| takes a less optimistic view of human beings and places more emphasis on their irrational tendencies and the difficulties inherent in self-fulfillment—particularly in a modern, bureaucratic, and dehumanizing mass society |
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| the modification of behavior as a consequence of experience |
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| a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone. |
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| the conditioned response gradually extinguishes |
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| the response may return at some future point in time |
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| operant (or instrumental) conditioning |
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Definition
| an individual learns how to achieve a desired goal |
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Definition
| refers either to the delivery of a reward or pleasant stimulus, or to the removal of or escape from an aversive stimulus |
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Definition
| when a response is conditioned to one stimulus or set of stimuli, it can be evoked by other, similar stimuli |
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Definition
| occurs when a person learns to distinguish between similar stimuli and to respond differently to them based on which ones are followed by reinforcement |
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| learning through observation alone, without directly experiencing an unconditioned stimulus (for classical conditioning) or a reinforcement (for instrumental conditioning) |
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| cognitive-behavioral perspective |
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Definition
| generally focuses on how thoughts and information processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions and behavior. |
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Definition
| an underlying representation of knowledge that guides the current processing of information and often leads to distortions in attention, memory, and comprehension. |
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| include our views on who we are, what we might become, and what is important to us. |
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| to work new experiences into our existing cognitive frameworks, even if the new information has to be reinterpreted or distorted to make it fit |
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| changing our existing frameworks to make it possible to incorporate new information that doesn’t fit |
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| the process of assigning causes to things that happen |
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| a characteristic way in which an individual tends to assign causes to bad events or good events |
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| more likely to make internal, stable, and global attributions for positive rather than negative events |
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| authoritative parent style |
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Definition
| Parents are high on warmth and moderate on control, very careful to set clear limits and restrictions regarding certain kinds of behaviors. |
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| Parents are high on warmth and low on control and discipline. |
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| Parents are low on warmth and low on control |
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| lack of concord or harmony between persons or things |
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