1 it can remain a stem cell

2. it can go on to become differentiated.

• process by which a normal cell becomes a cancer cell
• damage to DNA lead to mutations of genes,translocation of gentic material between chromosomes and gene reduplication.
• these alterations transform proto-oncogenes into oncogenes

function- DNA repair/tumor supressor gene function

cancer- breast cancer

Function: cell cycle inhibitor/tumor supressor gene function

cancer: retinoblastoma

funciton: signal transducer/growth

cancer: many

function: cell cycle and apoptosis regulator/tumor supressor

cancer: many

funciton: apoptosis inhibitor/apoptosis

cancer: chronic lymphocytic leukemias

function: inhibitor of signla transducer/tumor supressor gene

cancer: adenocarinoma colon

this activates proto-oncogene or inactivates a tumor supressor gene

mutation in a cells genetic structure  from:

1. inherited mutation

2. an error during DNA rep

3. exposure to a chemical, radiation, or viral agent

this is irritant or substance that produce cell activiation or proliferation

reversible proliferation of the altered cells from: increase in growth rate

promoting agents: deitary fat, obestiy, cigarette smoke, alcohol.

this is increased growth rate, invasiveness, and metastasis of the tumor

incuding:

• angiogenesis
• invasion: extends beyond basement membrane
• metastasis: spreads via lymph system, blood stream

• increase in the number, variation, shape, size
• loss of arrangement- decrease contact inhibition
• undifferentiated
• increase in nuclear size (hyperchromatic)
• loss of special function
• tumor cells escape immune surveillance
• increase metabolic demand for substrates
• altered interaction with neigboring cells
• invasion and matastasis

• increased metabolic rate and rapid rate of cell growth- increased demand for nutrients
• increase in glucose transport and utilization of anaerobic pathways
• need for vascular supply

• invasion by tumor cells through adjacent structures- anchorage independence
• entrance into blood or lymph systems
• survival of tumor cells
• implantation in a foreign tissue with estabilsihment of new tumor locus

 this is localized and amenable to surgical removal, patients usually survives

lipoma- benign tumor of fat, adenoma- benign tumor of gland

well deffereniated

invasive tumor capable of destroying structures and spread to distant sites Imatastasis), may result in early death of the patient

lower rate of growth

this is cancer of epithelial cells

basal cell, sqamous cell

 this is cancer of mesenchymal cells ( tissue)

such as: fibrosarcoma, lipsarcoma, mosarcoma, osteosarcoma

Grade

(I)

Grade

(2)

Grade

(3)

Grade

(IV)

1. tumor, primary tumor size and local extent

2. nodes, lymph node involvement number of postive nodes

3. Matastasis, extent of distant metastasis

Stage

(0)

Stage

(1)

Stage

(2)

Stage

(3)

Stage

(4)

Environmental carcinogens

altered DNA changes occur in response to:

• ultraviolet radiation
• ionizing radiation
• physical agents and chemicals such as tar, cobalt
• outdoor air pollution form moter vehicles
• viruces such as retrovirus, hepatitis B, HIV
• genes

• the use of tobacco
• diet- high in fat, low in fiber, or deficient in needed nutritents
• overweight/obesity
• alcohol
• certain poisionous muschrooms and aflaatoxinsreproductive and sexual behaviors, HPV

this depends on the type and location of tumor

some that are common for all are:

• pain
• weight loss
• loss of appetite
• fatigue
• malaise
• anemia
• infection

Seven warning signs of cancer!!

CAUTION

C- hange in blowel or bladder habits

A-sore that does not heal

U-nusual bleeding or dischange

T-hickening or lump in the breast or elsewhere

I-ndigestion or difficult in swallowing

O-bvious change in a wart or mole

N-agging cough or hoarsness

• history and physcial examination
• radiographic techniques
• laboratory analyses
• cytology
• tissue biopsy and surgery