Term
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Definition
Intentional cultivation
-planting and cultivation of selected plants (food crops)
-Taming and breeding of certain animals (livestock) |
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Term
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Definition
...10 kya in the Old World
...in the ancient culture of Mesopotamia 6-8 kya
...5 kya in the New World |
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Term
| Domestication increases... |
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Definition
| ...the supply of the selected species by controlling their location and numbers |
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Term
| Domestication supports... |
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Definition
| ...greater numbers of people per unit of land (eventually) |
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Term
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Definition
| Acquiring energy and materials from the environment |
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Term
| 3 Components of Production |
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Definition
1. Time and energy to do the work (labor)
2. Available tools and knowledge (technology)
3. Natural resources in the environment (resources) |
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Term
| Organization of Production solves.. |
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Definition
| ...issues associated with doing productive work (who, when, where, how) |
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Term
| Factors to consider in organizing production |
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Definition
1. Division of Labor
2. Patterns of Cooperation
3. Rights to Resources |
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Term
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Definition
| -allocating productive work to different kinds of people |
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Term
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Definition
| -cooperating to harness resources efficiently |
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Term
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Definition
-potential conflicts over access to natural resources
-conflict resolution
-resource rights allocation
-ownership rights, use rights
-group rights, individual rights |
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Term
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Definition
-collecting wild plants
-hunting wild game
-sometimes fishing
-aka foraging |
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Term
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Definition
-Horticulture
-Intensive Agriculture |
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Term
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Definition
-cultivation of domesticated crops
-use of hand tools, human muscle |
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Term
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Definition
-cultivation of domesticated crops
-intensive use of land by animal-powered plows
-system of cultivation in which plot productivity is maintained season after season
-usually uses irrigation, crop rotation, natural fertilizers, and plows powered by animals
-does not deplete nutrients in the soil |
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Term
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Definition
-tending of livestock herds
-harvest meat, milk, hides
-to eat, trade, sell
-aka herding
-occurs in areas unsuitable for agriculture
-pastoralists do not support agriculture |
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Term
| Foraging Division of Labor |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-high degree of mobility
-especially seasonal mobility
-seasonal congregation and dispersal of groups |
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Term
| Foraging Small Mobile Groups |
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Definition
-groups of 50 or less (bands)
-environmental richness
-fission to avoid social conflict
-dogs are the only domesticated animal |
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Term
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Definition
-common pattern
-highly mobile
-subsistence tools
-until domestication, most people lived this way
-australia, russia, africa, south america, western US, canada and alaska |
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Term
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Definition
-horses for mobility, hunting efficiency
-only in great plains of US and Argentina
-Societies became more warlike and hierarchical chiefdoms |
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Term
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Definition
-focus on marine resources
-permanent settlements
-most associated with NW Coast Indians |
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Term
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Definition
-aka slash and burn
-farm the forest in a cycle: deforest, burn, cultivate
-works well with low population density
-once widespread, now mainly in Central, South America, Southeast Asia, and Central Africa |
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Term
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Definition
-areas of low, erratic and unpredictable rainfall
-techniques specific for coping with possibility of drought
-occurs in the American Southwest, in arid parts of Mexico, in some of the Middle East and in much of sub-Saharan Africa |
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Term
| Horticulturalists vs. Foragers |
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Definition
-size and mobility of groups
-living in larger groups (villages)
-permanently settled (sedentary)
-Land Rights
-families have more definite rights of ownership over particular pieces of land
-conflict and conflict resolution? |
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Term
| Consequences of Intensive Agriculture |
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Definition
-allowed a single farm family to produce and surplus over and above its own food needs
-the surplus can be traded, sold, or taxed and supports people who do not themselves do farm work
-rulers, aristocrats, bureaucrats, priests, warriors, merchants, and craft specialists
-supported the rise of civilization and city life |
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Term
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Definition
-follow a seasonal pattern of migration that is variable
-live in temporary settlements |
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Term
| Transhumance Pastoralists |
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Definition
-follow a cyclical pattern of migration between two locations
-permanent settlements in both areas
-depend less on animals for subsistence
-may do small scale farming at summer encampment
-may trade in town for products they do not produce |
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Term
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Definition
-pastoral adaptation occurs mainly in areas where agriculture is impossible
-low rainfall, short growing season, inedible grasslands
-deserts, grasslands, savannas, mountains, Arctic
-Livestock
-can eat marginal vegetation and transform it into human food (milk, blood, fat, and muscle)
-provide an insurance against droughts and crop failures
-are mobile so they can go to water and pasture
-is insurance against crop failure |
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Term
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Definition
-adaptation is the process of adjustment or change in a character
-structural
-physiological
-behavioral
-improves the chances for survival and reproduction in a given environment |
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Term
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Definition
-origin of posture
-Darwin's finches |
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Term
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Definition
| -citizens who live in high altitudes |
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Term
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Definition
-forms foundation for ways different people exist in different environments
-mating behaviors |
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Term
| adaptation vs. interaction |
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Definition
adaptation:
-in biology/ecology refers to the development of behavioral and physiological characteristics that aid survivorship in a given environment
-by extension refers to the adjustments organisms make to their surroundings:
-like other animals, humans adapt to their natural surroundings
-humans tend to alter nature in the process of adapting to it more than other organisms |
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Term
| adaptation vs. interaction |
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Definition
interaction:
-emphasizes alteration
-human-environment interaction
-interaction is part of human adaptation |
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Term
| Adaptation and the environment |
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Definition
-environment includes resources that people can use to meet their needs (food, water, wood, stone)
-environment includes problems people must overcome
-resource scarcity
-high/low temperatures, rainfall variability, etc. |
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Term
| Functionalist Theory of Inequality |
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Definition
-societies offer unequal rewards to those individuals who have scarce talents that they use to perform socially valuable roles
-inequality is necessary to motivate achievement
-criticisms |
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Term
| Conflict theory of Inequality |
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Definition
-control over productive resources leads to inequality
-owners (bourgeoisie)
-workers (proletariat)
-profit:
-difference between workers' pay and cost of goods produced
-exploitation of workers |
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Term
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Definition
the extent to which culturally valued material and social rewards are allocated disproportionately to individuals, families, and other groups
-rewards wealth, power and prestige |
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Term
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Definition
-egalitarian
-rank
-stratification |
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Term
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Definition
| -no individual or group has more privileged access to resources, power or prestige than any other |
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Term
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Definition
| -characterized by institutionalized differences in prestige, no important restriction of access to basic resources |
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Term
| inequality: stratification |
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Definition
| -characterized by formal permanent social and economic inequality. some people denied access to basic resources. |
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Term
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Definition
-biologically determined (genetics)
-X and Y sex chromosomes
-different male and female categories (dichotomous) |
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Term
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Definition
-culturally determined
-cultures have distinctive ideas about males and females |
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Term
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Definition
-XXY (male)
-infertility, social issues, speaking issues, lessens testosterone, slower maturation, less body hair |
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Term
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Definition
-XXX/XYY
-usually very tall people, speech problems, 1 out of 1,000 female births |
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Term
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Definition
-patrilineal, horticultural people who live in villages of 100 to 300 people
-gender constructed based on female/male differences
-bodies contain nu |
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Term
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Definition
-live-giving substance
-symbolically associated with growth and maturity
-females have an excess, males have less
-exchanged in liquid and gaseous forms
-exchange can be harmful or helpful |
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Term
| Hua third and fourth genders |
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Definition
females transfer excess nu
-during preparing, serving food
-sexual intercourse
-childbirth
-rubbing fluids on children
become depleted over time
-menstruation, childbirth, sex
-become less dangerous to men
-become more like men |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| males transfer limited nu |
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Definition
-during sex
-rubbing fluids on children |
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Term
| men become invulnerable to nu contamination over time |
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Definition
-eating food, sex with wife
-bodies full of nu
-become more like women |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-Navajo Indians
-gender based on roles not sex |
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Term
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Definition
-Cheyenne Indians
-dress like women and do woman things, like marry men |
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Term
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Definition
-Omani
-cross-gender occupation or work activities
-transvestism
-associations with spiritual power
-sam SEX relationships (not with same 3rd gender) |
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Term
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Definition
-India
-gender role that is neither masculine or feminine
-born male, live female
-followers of a Hindu goddess Bahuchara Mata
-emasculation as ritual devotion
-procreative powers of the goddess transferred to them
-religious cult centered on her worship
-earn a living by performing at life-cycle ceremonies (birth of a child, marriage) |
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Term
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Definition
-Samoa
-tradition of raising some boys as girls
-not necessarily homosexual or effeminate
-later born boys in families with many sons but few daughters
-parents choose one or more of their sons to help the mother
-do work of women |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| -favors the ability of one sex (usually male) to compete directly with one another for mates (fighting) |
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Term
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Definition
| -favors in one sex which attract the other |
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Term
| Religion a general term used... |
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Definition
| -to designate all concepts concerning the belief in god(s) and goddess(es) and other spiritual beings or transcendental ultimate concerns |
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Term
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Definition
| ...institution characterized by sacred stories, symbols, the proposed existence of immeasurable things, rituals and means of addressing the supernatural. |
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Term
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Definition
| attitudes, beliefs, practices pertaining to supernatural power, whether that power rests in forces, gods, spirits, ghosts, demons... |
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Term
| EB Taylor defines religion as |
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Definition
| -belief in spiritual beings |
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Term
| Karl Marx defines religion as |
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Definition
| -the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, just as it is the spirit of a spiritless situation. it is the opiate of the people. |
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Term
| Napoleon Bonaparte defined religion as... |
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Definition
| -excellent stuff for keeping common people quiet. |
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Term
| Components of Religion: Beliefs about nature and character of supernatural beings |
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Definition
-elements of animism-belief in spiritual beings
-spiritual beings with supernatural powers
-Omniscient, omnipotent god(s)
-expects sacrifices or worship
-is mindful of human behavior and morality
-supernatural forces are known by their effects
-usually don't take form or have will of own
-mana makes a chief successful
-pollution sickens in absence of purification ritual |
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Term
| Components of Religion: Oral or written stories about supernatural powers and cultural heroes (myths) |
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Definition
-eve offers forbidden fruit to adam: their original sin explains the origin of evil in the Judeo-Christian worldview
-God gave humans 'dominion' over nature to 'subdue' the earth and its living creatures: Western worldview the lacks prohibition on pollution, over-use of natural resources
-The Mardu rainbow serpent-protector of the land and people, but is destructed if not properly respected |
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Term
| Components of Religion: Rituals intended to include or direct supernatural powers for the benefit of the individual group |
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Definition
-rituals are stereotyped--defined patterns of speech, movement, sequence of events
-symbolic behavior
-places with symbolic significance
-manipulation of objects with symbolic significance
-language and behavior with symbolic meaning
-conscious purpose
-schedule of occurrence
-calendrical-held regularly (weekly, seasonally)
-crisis-performed when needed (weather, hunting, sickness) |
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Term
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Definition
1. myths, legends, folklore*
2. ways of assigning tasks and roles by age, gender, skill
3. prohibitions on sexual relations between certain kinds of relatives
4. organized ways of sharing and exchanging goods
5. beliefs about supernatural powers and rituals to communicate with and influence those supernatural powers*
6. decorative arts
7. singing and other forms of music
8. games, sports, other kinds of recreational activities
9. ways of handling the dead and expressing grief
10. rites of passage that recognize the movement of people through certain stages of life* |
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Term
| Intellectual/Cognitive Theory (Religion) |
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Definition
-homo sapiens are evolved problem solvers
-religious beliefs:
-provide explanations for puzzling things and events
-help satisfy the uniquely human desire to understand things and events
-sir james frazer
-clifford geertz
-stewart guthrie |
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Term
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Definition
-intellectual/cognitive theory
-The Golden Bough
-3 stages of cultural progression
-magic
-religion
-science
-Separation from science and religion |
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Term
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Definition
-intellectual/cognitive theory
-religion provides assurances that world is meaningful |
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Term
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Definition
-intellectual/cognitive theory
-we see the world anthropomorphic and bet on mother nature |
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Term
| Psychological Theory (Religion) |
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Definition
-people derive emotional or affective satisfaction from religion
-helps people cope with times of trouble, stress, sickness, injustices, deaths
-can better cope if there is a reason behind trouble or ritualized way to make it better
-can deny knowledge of our own mortality
-Malinowski |
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Term
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Definition
-Psychological theory of religion
-functional interpretation of religion
-gives people confidence in endeavors when failure is likely
-ability to 'control' otherwise uncontrollable elements
-relieves anxiety that results from uncertainty |
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Term
| Sociological Theory (Religion) |
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Definition
Religion maintains society as a whole by:
-Instilling common values
-golden rule
-10 commandments
Creating Solidarity
-commonality of belief and ritual-->feeling of unity
Controlling behavior
-increasing conformity to norms
-teaching shared values to children
-teaching moral lessons through myths |
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Term
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Definition
-individuals have a special relationship with one or more supernatural powers who serve as personal guardians and protectors
-Native American Vision Quest |
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Term
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Definition
-Shamans have power to contact supernatural beings to help (especially cure) individuals. Shamans may also act on behalf of their band or village to cause harm to enemies.
-common among foragers |
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Term
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Definition
-members of well-defined group gather periodically for collective rituals that benefit the group as a whole or some individual member.
-elders often have special roles in rituals |
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Term
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Definition
-groups have full time religious officials (priests) organized into a religious bureaucracy supported by tribute or redistribution. priests officiate at calendrical rituals believed to benefit the society or political unit as a whole, making people dependent on priests and rituals for their spiritual and material welfare
-catholic church in medieval europe
-ancient egyptians |
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Term
| Marriage: Transfer of Goods |
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Definition
-in US, wedding gifts directly to bride and groom
-no exchange really between bride and groom's family |
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Term
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Definition
-man and his relatives transfer wealth to relatives of his bride
-functions as a way to entitle the husband to rights of his new wife
-Masai |
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Term
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Definition
| -husband spends a period of time working for the family of his bride |
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Term
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Definition
-woman's family transfers wealth to their daughter and her husband/husband's family
-asia, india, pakistan, bolgedesh |
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Term
| Economic Exchange: Reciprocity |
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Definition
-mutual transaction of objects without use of money
-individuals or groups pass objects back and forth in order to: help someone in need, create/maintain/strengthen social ties, obtain objects for oneself |
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Term
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Definition
| -giving without expectation of definite return (parents to children) |
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Term
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Definition
-products are transferred and the donor expects a return in products of roughly equal value:
-over the long term, giving should even out
-characterized by lack of bargaining, sanctions for not reciprocating |
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Term
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Definition
| -trying to get something for nothing or as little as possible (material advantage); bartering |
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Term
| Reciprocity and Social Distance |
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Definition
-social distance is the degree to which cultural norms specify persons should be intimate with or emotionally attached to one another
-each type of reciprocity tends to be associated with certain kinds of social relationships
-generalized=least
-balanced=intermediate
-negative=great
--Kula Ring--trade route in south pacific--trade to reinforce cultural exchange and bonds between communities that are spread out, otherwise. |
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Term
| Economic Exchange: Redistribution |
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Definition
-goods are collected from or contributed by member of a group (taxes)
-put into a common pool
-goods returned to the group by a central authority
-for benefit of group as a whole
-often conflict over:
-who should provide the resources
-how pool should be spent
-use of pool for decision-maker's benefit
--tribute--rendering of goods (typically including food) to an authority such as a chief
-Potlatch- you inherit title, but you have to earn it too--the more you can do, the higher your status is, chief gives back wealth in the form of a feast a show, etc. |
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Term
| Economic Exchange: Market |
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Definition
-products are sold for money
-money is used to purchase other products
-goal of acquiring more money and/or accumulating more products
-defined objects as medium of exchange>money
-a rate at which goods exchange for money>prices
-prices that are determined by supply and demand
-privately owned property
-whole economy is based on market principles
-most goods and services can be bought and sold
-most people make their living selling something on the market |
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Term
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Definition
-serves as media of exchange
-serves as standard of value
-also a store of value
-has symbolic significance (social status)
-durable and divisible
-controllable
-portable |
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