False

he was a French physiologist

from the 1800s

True

"milieu interieur" refers to the 'internal environment'

it is derived from a Greek word

meaning "stay the same"

True

keeping the "internal environment" constant is the goal of the body

True:

that is the point of homeostasis - to maintain the internal environment due to changes in the external environment

 why would the internal environment have to be maintained?? it would have to be maintained b/c the external environment is changing..!

True

the 60% of fluid that is found in the body is either ICF or ECF - inside the cells or outside the cells

T/F: extracellular fluid makes up more of the total fluid in the body than intracellular fluid

give numbers!

False:

intracellular fluid (fluid within cells) makes up more fluid than extracellular fluid (fluid outside of cells)

ICF: 2/3 of total body fluid

ECF: 1/3 of total body fluid

ECF is the extracellular fluid that makes up part of the total body fluid in the human body

ECF is blood plasma (plasma is the fluid portion of blood) and interstitial fluid (fluid between tissue cells)

so, plasma & interstitial fluid

False:

interstitial fluid is a component of the ECF

interstitial fluid is the fluid that is found between tissue cells

ECF is the extracellular fluid that is composed of interstitial fluid and blood plasma

False:

The ECF is in constant motion throughout the body

I actually dont know if the ICF is in motion or not - its not mentioned in the notes

False:

we said that ECF is composed of blood plasma and interstitial fluid and capillaries is a network of blood vessels so of course blood will be found in capillaries and if blood is found in capillaries, so is the blood plasma

T/F: most cells are within 50 micrometers of a capillary

what does this mean?

True:

most cells are within 50 micrometers of a capillary

what this means is that since they are pretty close to capillaries and since ECF is found in capillaries which eventually end up in interstitial spaces, cells are continuously bathed in ECF

False:

how can the ECF be part of the external environment if its found inside the body?

ICF is intracellular and ECF is extracellular - they are both part of our bodies therefore they are both internal

False:

The ECF not the ICF needs to be re-circulated in order to maintain homeostasis

False:

cellular metabolism uses nutrients and produces wastes

gets the nutrients from the ECF and throws its wastes into the ECF - this is why the ECF needs to be constantly re-freshed

which of the following physiological parameters do NOT need to be controlled in ECF in order for tissue cells to continue functioning properly (ie maintain homeostasis):

pH

electrolytes

catalysts

temperature

nutrients

wastes

gases

equilibrium

the ones that are not going to have an affect on the proper functioning of the tissue cells are:

catalysts and equilibrium

pH

temperature

gases

nutrients

electrolytes

waste products

these 6 are very important factors that need to be controlled in the ECF for the normal functionaing of the tissue cells

True:

the pH, temperature, gases, nutrients, electrolytes, and waste products are found IN the ECF - these need to be controlled in order to maintian homeostasis

False:

the pH of the ICF IS 7.4 but the pH of the ECF is also 7.4

body cells' pH is 7.4 - but ECF is also 7.4

basically, entire body pH is 7.4 (neutral)

pH: 7.4

temperature: 37C

gases: O2 and CO2

nutrients: fatty acids, glucose, amino acids

electrolytes: Na, K, Ca, Cl

waste products: CO2 and urea

negative/positive feedback will result when there is some change in the physiological parameter

physiological parameter meaning if the blood pressure goes up then negative feedback will play a role or during child birth, positive feedback will play a role

there needs to be some change* in the body for the feedback to play their role (their role is to maintain homestasis - if there is too less of something, we will get more of it etc)

True:

negative feedback will oppose the action

ex: if blood pressure is too low, then negative feedback will do its work to increase blood pressure again

ex: if in labor and need more contraction of the uterine wall then positive feedback will do its job to make more of it (generate more contractic than the uterine wall is already contracting)

False:

both of these scenarios are examples of NEGATIVE FEEDBACK not positive feedback

just b/c we hear the word "negative" (in negative feedback) doesn't mean that we're bringing something back down and just b/c we hear the word "positive" (in positive feedback) doesn't mean that we're bringing something back up

what we have to remember with negative feedback is that, we are OPPOSING the action - so even if there is too little of something, we will bring it back UP or if there is too much of something, we will bring it back DOWN

what we have to remember with positive feedback is that we're making more or making less of something that is already on its way there - positive feedback goes ALONG with the action that is already in action

False:

its an example of negative feedback

False:

change in blood pressure is measured by baroreceptors located in the aorta and the carotid sinuses

False:

the baroreceptors of the aorta and the carotid sinuses communicate with the 'vasomotor center' in the medulla (portion of the brainstem)

when the blood pressure decreases, the baroreceptors sense this change and signal the vasomotor center to do the following things in order to restore the blood pressure back to its normal level:

vasomotor centers increase heart rate,

increases heart contraction strength,

increases peripheral vasoconstriction,

stimulates release of epinephrine

false:

the vasomotor center increases* the heart constraction strength

False:

production of norepinephrine has nothing to do with blood pressure

decrease in blood pressure increases the release of epinephrine* (adrenaline) from the adrenal gland

False:

decrease in blood pressure causes an increase of epinephrine (adrenaline) released from the adrenal gland (recall that adrenal gland has two components: adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla) therefore adrenal cortex DOES have something to do with decrease in blood pressure

False:

once again, norepinephrine has nothing to do with blood pressure (whether increase or decrease)

True:

increased peripheral vasodilation means a decrease in peripheral vasoconstriction

Increased blood pressure:

-decrease heart rate

-decrease heart contraction strength

-increase peripheral vasodilation or decrease peripheral vasoconstriction

Decreased blood pressure:

-increase heart rate

-increase heart contraction strength

-increase peripheral vasoconstriction

-increase release of epinephrine (adrenaline) from adrenal gland

False:

its the other way around

negative feedback does not cause significant* changes in the physiological state but positive feedback DOES cause significant* changes in the physiological state

think about this: negative feedback merely restores* the physiological parameter back to its original level so there is not much change in the physiological state but positive feedback produces an even greater change in the SAME direction so of course that will cause a significant chage in the physiological state

False:

actually i dont know but we dont have to know this for the test so in other words, muscle contraction is not an example of positive feedback

False:

it is controlled at the molecular level, the cellular level, the organ level, and the system level

Oxygen binding and release:

the primary control is at the level of a single molecule - hemoglobin

hemoglobin binds O2 in the lungs and only releases O2 to tissues that really need it (tissues that are low in oxygen)

False:

the CNS needs a constant supply of glucose* not glycogen

because neurons (CNS) do not store glycogen

therefore they need a constant supply of glucose

False:

its the pancreas* that controls constant levels of glucose in blood

False:

pancreas releases glucagon** (not glycogen) to maintain glucose levels in blood

True

islets of langerhaans are cells found in the pancreas and release insulin and glucagon

True:

one islet has alpha and beta cells

alpha = glucagon released

beta = insulin released

False:

pancreas releases insulin and glucagon (not sugar) to maintain blood glucose levels

False:

insulin is a peptide hormone (not fatty acid) that is produced and released by the beta cells of the islets of langerhaans

False:

insulin is both PRODUCED and RELEASED by the islets of langerhaans in the pancreas

False:

when blood glucose levels have increased, insulin increases* glycogenesis - it increases the production of glycogen so the glucose in the blood can be put into glycogen (storage form)

False:

glycogen is itself made of glucose molecules

we said glycogen stores carbohydrates (which includes glucose molecules) but itself is also made of glucose molecules

1) insulin increases cellular* uptake of glucose from blood

2) insulin increases glycogenesis (production of glycogen)

False:

Insuling = peptide hormone

Glucagon = peptide hormone

Glycogen = NOT a hormone

NOT peptide

it is made of GLUCOSE molecules

True:

glucagon =

1) peptide hormone

2) produced by alpha cells in islets of langerhaans

3) released by alpha cells in islets of langerhaans

True:

recall we said that cellular uptake of glucose is increased when blood glucose levels are high - this is saying the same thing

True

low blood glucose levels has a strong effect on the liver

False:

liver cells can be about 8% glycogen by weight

recall that liver converts glucose to glycogen and 8% of liver cells are glycogen

False:

glycogenesis is increased when blood glucose levels are high and this is done by insulin - more glycogen will take up more glucose from blood to bring it back down

glucagon increases glycogenolysis and increases glucogeonesis

what are the differences between glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and glucogeonesis?

1) glycogenesis: production of glycogen

insulin increases this when blood glucose levels are high

2) glycogenolysis: breakdown of glycogen

glucagon increases this when blood glucose levels are low

3) glucogeonesis: production of glucose

glucagon increases this when blood glucose levels are low

1) increases glycogenolysis

increases break down of glycogen so glucose can be released into the blood

aka metabolism of glycogen

2) increases gluconeogenesis

increases production of glucose from fats or proteins

One example of maintaining of homeostasis at cellular/organ level was pancreas releasing two hormones to maintain blood glucose levels.

what is another example?

True:

extra: we said that ECF needs to be maintained when we talk about homeostasis - we know that ECF contains gases, nutrients, electrolytes etc

glucose is the nutrient

calcium ions are the electrolytes

both are in the ECF

being 'in' ECF means either interstitial fluid or plasma

well calcium ions and glucose are both in plasma*

False:

only in ECF

ICF doesn't have calcium ions

it is important b/c calcium ion levels play a role in intracellular events like muscle contraction and release of neurotransmitters from neurons

calcium ions affect the excitability of neurons and muscles depending how much calcium there is etc

False:

its the other way around

hypothalamus detects thermoregulation and has "hypothalamus thermoregulating center"

and medulla has to do with blood pressure - the vasomotor center is in the medulla - recall that baroreceptors in aorta and carotid sinuses send signals to vasomotor center of medulla and either increase or decrease blood pressure depending on conditions

False:

hypocalcemia increases* excitability

True

hypocalcemia in ECF = increase excitability

hypercalcemia in ECF = decrease excitability

whether its hypo or hyper has to do with the ECF (outside the cells)

so if low calcium levels outside of cells (ECF) - we can think that it means that 'inside' the cells then, there are high levels of calcium which means more excitability

same way, if high calcium levels outside of cells (ECF) - we can think that it means that 'inside' the cells then, there are low levels of calcium which means reduced excitability

False:

the reason excitability is increased during hypocalcemia is b/c the cell membrane is more permeable to Na+ ions (NOT K+ ions) causing muscle spasms etc.

think about it - when cell membranes are more permeable to Na+ ions, it means that the cell is more likely to reach threshold (depolarization) and achieve an action potential and we know when action potential occurs, it causes excitement like muscle contraction or release of neurotransmitters - if K+ ions were more permeable rather than Na+ then the cell would become hyperpolarized and no action potential would reach

False:

calcium ions are important for blood clotting

False:

it is a hormone released by the thyroid gland*

False:

ECF AND blood

False:

only parathyroid gland

True

all 4 of these hormones are peptides

False:

C cells of the thyroid gland release calcitonin

there is no such as bone marrow cells in the thyroid gland

1) calcitonin will increase the deposition of calcium ions into the bones (since calcium is stored in bones)

2) calcitonin will indirectly increase the calcium levels in urine by blocking the release of PTH

well first of all, we know calcitonin is doing this in response to high levels of calcium in blood

we said one way to decrease calcium level was depositing it into bones

another way is to increase calcium levels in urine by blocking the release of PTH

it turns out that in the absence of PTH, excess calcium ions are given off into urine (which eventually exit the body) so this is a good way of decreasing calcium levels in blood

False:

there are no C cells in parathyroid gland

C cells are found in thyroid gland which release calcitonin (think c of calcitonin with c cells)

i dont know what cells of the parathyroid gland release PTH

T/F: parathyroid hormone is released in response to low levels of calcium in blood and ECF

what is the function of parathyroid hormone?

True

since PTH is released in response to low levels of calcium in blood and calcium, PTH will increase calcium levels in blood and ECF again restoring it back to its original value

False:

doing this would decrease the calcium ions in blood and ECF - this is the action of calcitonin not PTH

PTH does the opposite - PTH increases the re-absorpotion of calcium from the kidneys (re-absorption means the blood absorbs Ca from kidneys)

True:

this is the opposite of what calcitonin does

calcitonin increased deposition of calcium ions into bones and PTH stimulates the release of calcium ions from the bones so that makes sense

1) stimulating mobilization of calcium ions from bones

2) increasing re-absorption of calcium from kidneys

3) stimulating absorption of calcium ions from digestive tract*

False:

thermoregulation is an example of maintaining homeostasis at the system level

False:

thermoregulation requires the use of hypothalamus

true:

its located in the brain therefore its part of the CNS

False:

there is an increase in peripheral vasoconstriction*

INcreased peripheral vasodilation when blood pressure increases

INcreased peripheral vasodilation in resonse to hot temperatures

Increase in peripheral vasoconstriction:

1) in response to low blood pressure

2) in response to cold temperature (constrict has 'c' and cold has 'c')

Increase in peripheral vasodilation:

1) in response to high blood pressure

2) in response to hot temperature

1) increased peripheral vasoconstriction (prevents heat loss to environment)

2) shivering in which skeletal muscles contract generating heat (upto 5 hold more heat produced)

3) behavioral responses (keeping limbs close to body)

False:

two things are false here

1) skeletal* msucles not smooth muscles geenrate the heat

2) skeletal muscles generate 5 fold more heat not 50

1) increased peripheral vasodilation

2) sweating (evaporative heat loss)

True:

this is b/c the cell membrane is a lipid bilayer and does not allow hydrophilic things to get in

glucose is hydrophilic

1) lipids

2) carbohydrates

3) proteins

True

so it cannot easily pass through the cell membrane

it needs a carrier protein or something to carry it across the membrane since the membrane has a hydrophobic layer and urea is a hydrophilic molecule

True:

phospholipids are amphipathic meaning that they have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic components

recall that the phospholipid is a phospholipid bilayer which has a hydrophilic head and hydrophilic tails

one component of the cell membrane is lipids.

what types of lipids are found in the cell membrane?

1) phospholipids

2) cholesterol

False:

cholesterol has hydrophobic AND hydrophilic components

so lipids in the cell membrane have two kinds of lipids: phospholipids and cholesterol

both of these lipids have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic components

Why is the lipid bilayer made of lipids?

what is the importance of this?

so it can act as a barrier for water molecules

the importance of this is that the membrane can have selective permeability for water soluble compounds

1) barrier for water soluble molecules so selective permeability for water soluble molecules

2) serves as reservoir of substrates for producing hormones and second messengers* (i will forget this)

True:

dont forget that the cell membrane is also composed of proteins and actually by weight, there is greatest amount of protein, then lipids, and than carbohydrates (this is by weight) but in the membrane, we have most of the lipids; particularly, the phospholipids

False:

they are normally found on the outer surface of the plasma membrane

False:

carbohydrates are either attached to proteins or lipids hence the terms glycoproteins and glycolipids

False:

nothing related to digestive system

True:

self vs. non-self recognition of cells

False:

only endocrine system

some hormone receptors have carbohydrates attached that contribute to hormone/receptor recognition

Integral proteins

Peripheral proteins

False:

peripheral proteins are associated with the inner surface of the cell membrane

False:

some peripheral proteins are attached to integral proteins

extra: recall that peripheral proteins are normally attached to the inner surface of the cell membrane and some are attached to the integral proteins (b/c we know that integral proteins protrude through the membrane so they are found on the outside as well as inside)

False:

adenylyl cyclase is associated with peripheral proteins on the cell membrane

recall we said that peripheral proteins function as enzymes or factors controlling enzymes (ie adenylyl cycle, G proteins)

True:

this is why the cell membrane is called a fluid mosaic model

False:

like the proteins, the cell membrane itself is also able to move around which is why its called the fluid mosaic model

False:

the cytoplasm contains both dissolved and undissolved things

1) metabolic enzymes

2) free ribosomes

3) storage sites for fats and carbs

True:

we said that cytosol contains metabolic enzymes that regulate production and breakdown of fatty acids, proteins, carbs, and nucleotides

well glycolysis means breakdown of carbs therefore there are enzymes needed for that and these enzymes are found in the cytoplasm

True:

part of central dogma - we know that proteins are produced in the cytosol

this makes sense b/c we said that cytosol contains "free" ribosomes and we know ribosomes function to make proteins

skin

CNS

body organs

when do skeletal muscle contract to general heat?

how much heat is generated?

the skeletal muscles generate heat in response to cold temperatures

the skeletal muscles generate upto 5 fold more heat

True:

losing heat to the environment is the same thing as peripheral vasodilation

True:

1) endocrine system: many cell surface hormone receptors have carbohydrates attached and they contribute to hormone/receptor recognition

2) immune system: they contribute to self-vs-nonself recognition of cells

False:

integral proteins do act as hormone receptors

the other functions include: ion channels, carrier proteins for active transport and facilitated diffusion

T/F: protein such as metabolic enzyme for glycolysis are made in the cytosol

explain:

True:

this is just an example used when talking about free ribosomes found in the cytosol - these free ribosomes translate proteins like the enzyme for glycolysis

we said that the cytosol contains metabolic enzymes like enzymes for glycolysis and the cytosol also contains free ribosomes so the free ribosomes make these metabolic enzymes found in the cytosol

extra: cytosol also contains storage sites for fats and carbs

False:

adipose tissue contains cells that are specialized for fat* storage

the cells of adipose tissue contain huge fat droplets that occupy almost an entire cytosol

liver cells and muscle cell

recall that storage of carbs means glycogen

recall we said that liver contains 8% glycogen by weight

muscle cell contains 3% glycogen by weight

False:

glycogen granules exert less* of an osmotic effect than indiviudal glucose molecules

this is b/c glycogen is a polymer (1 compound)

False:

ER produces as well as packages a variety of substances

1) rough or granular ER

2) smooth ER

False:

the ribosomes attached to rough ER are used to produce proteins like protein hormones (insulin,glucagon,calcitonin,PTH etc)

False:

the smooth ER does not have any ribosomes attached

Yes, it does produce lipids but from the lipid synthesizing enzymes

True:

recall we said that the smooth ER has lipid synthesizing enzymes that are important for the production of membranes such as phospholipids

True:

recall that the cell membrane of the ER is a lipid bilayer and we know that smooth ER contains lipid synthesizing enzymes that are important for the production of membranes such as phospholipids as well as other membranes that surround the organelles

False:

steroid hormoens are lipids therefore they are produced in the smooth ER which lack ribosomes and have lipid synthesizing enzymes

rough ER have ribisomes which make protiens, not lipids

False:

skeletal muscles

False:

both the ER and the golgli complex are composed of lipid bilayer

1) processing of 'raw' materials into their finished product

2) packaging and directing of the finished product to final destinations

it means the types of proteins that are placed into the vesicle's membrane

the type of 'packaing' determines which proteins the vesicle transports

the type of 'packaging' determines the destination of the vesicle - destination could be intracellular like lysosomes or secretory vesicles

False:

both the ER and the golgi produce and package substances

False:

composed of agranular vesicles

True:

ER is a network of fluid filled tubules and vesicles

golgi is composed of stacks of agranular vesicles

False:

the golgi is closely associated with the ER and receives material from the ER, not the nucleus!

False:

lysosomes, not peroxisomes serve as intracellular digestive systems

where are lysosomes produced?

where are peroxisomes produced?

lysosomes are produced in the golgi complex

peroxisomes are produced in the ER

False:

both lysosomes and peroxsisomes are vesicles!

which enzyme do lysosomes contain?

which enzyme do peroxisome contain?

lysosme contain 'hydrolases'

peroxisome contain 'oxidases'

what do lysosomes combine with?

what is the purpose of this?

lysosomes combine with vesicles produced from endocytosis

the enzymes of the lysosomes (like hydrolase but a different enzyme i guess) break down the endocytic vesicles

this is how phagocytic white blood cells engulf and destroy bacteria

recall that oxidase are enzymes found in the peroxisomes

oxidase oxidize substances

they detoxify substances like ethanol in liver cells

they also breakdown fatty acids into acetyl Co-A

True:

oxidase in the peroxisome detoxify some substances like ethanol in liver cells etc

False:

oxidase breakdown fatty acids into acetyl-CoA

how many layers surround the ER?

the golgi? the miotchondria?

ER is surrounded by one lipid bilayer

golgi is surrounded by one lipid bilayer

mitochondria is surorunded by two* lipid bilayer - it has a double membrane

False:

mitochondrial DNA is called mitochondrial DNA b/c the DNA Is located in the mitochondria

False:

there are tons depending on the cell

muscle cell has mostly al mitochondria

there has to be more than one b/c thats why mitochodnria have their own DNA so they can make more mitochondria within the cell without having to replicate the sholw cell

True

mitochondria is called a double membrane b/c it has two lipid bilayers

False:

the inner membrane of the mitochondria contains the electron transport proteins

the outer layer surrounds the mitochondria

False:

the inner layer of the mitochondria contains folds called cristae

True:

the cristae which are folds of the inner membrane project into the inner cavity

what is the matrix?

where is it found?

what is its function?

matrix is gel-like solution that fills the inner cavity

the matrix contains a concentrated mixture of metabolic enzyme

True:

energy can be added to ADP to make ATP

energy is not added to ATP - ATP is broken down to produce ADP and energy*

2 pyruvic acid

2 ATP

2 NADH

False:

2 ATP are produced for every glucose molecule

(1 glucose --> 2ATP, 2NADH, 2pyruvic acid)

citric acid cycle

tricarboxylic acid

False:

it occurs in the mitochondrial matrix

False:

2pyruvic acids (not ATP) are converted into acetyl-CoA in the matrix of mitochondria during krebs cycle

recall that 2 pyruvic acid molcules are converted to acetyl CoA in the mitochondrial matrix

the acetyl CoA molecules are then metabolized

False:

2ATP

8NADH

2FADH2

hydrogen carrier molecules

same function as NADH

False:

only krebs cycle produces CO2

False:

only krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix

electron transport chain occurs in the cristae of the inner membrane

1) the electrons from hydrogen from NADH and FADH2 are transferred to electron transport chain

2) the electrons move down the electron transport chain and release energy as they go from higher energy state to lower energy state

3) the energy that is released is used to produce ATP (from ADP)

False:

32 ATP molecules

False:

O2 is the final electron transport chain

oxygen is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain

and then oxygen combines with H+ proton to make water

cyanide is a fast-acting toxin that blocks the transfer of electrons to oxygen

it has the same effect as removing all oxygen

False:

uses glycolysis, krebs cycle, and electron transport chain

False:

anaerobic does not require oxygen

glycolysis

oxygen not required

False:

it is converted to lactic acid

False:

2 ATPs produced by anaerobic energy production

False:

diffusion and active transport

concentration gradient

high to low

True

as well as its concentration gradient and its electrical gradient

1) permeability

2) concentration gradient

3) electrical gradient

1) lipid solubility - if the substance is lipid soluble then its permeability increases - remember that this is diffusion which is just natural crossing of substances (no ion channels etc) so the subsntaces need to be lipid soluble in order to increase their permeability

2) number of specific membrane channels for substances that are not lipid soluble (ex: ion channel)

True

they cannot pass through the hydrophobic regions of the cell membrane

False:

everything is true except that hydration of ions does not occur in the cell - it occurs outside the cell and this increases the size of the ions not allowing the ions to pass the cell membrane

False:

only integral proteins