Term
| what is an example of a periphery lymph organ? |
|
Definition
| lymph nodes, spleen, and epithelium-associated lymphoid tissues |
|
|
Term
| how many receptor's do t-cells have for antigens? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is interesting about IgM? |
|
Definition
| its has several binding sites, but it has the lowest affinity for antibodies |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| they are factor's that attract the white blood cells |
|
|
Term
| which antibody is mostly in the blood? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cancer of epithelial cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cancer of muscle or connective tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cancer of hemiopoetic cells |
|
|
Term
| how many more times are smokers likely to get lung cancer than non smokers? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the doubling time of a breast cancer tumor? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| does cancer causing mutations form in somatic or sex cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is a single mutation enough to cause cancer? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what happens to the size of the nuclei // amount of cytoplasm a cell has as it becomes cancerous? |
|
Definition
| nucleus gets very large, cytoplasm shrinks |
|
|
Term
| what does the rate of cancer depend upon? |
|
Definition
| mutation rate, number of individuals, rate of reproduction, selection of mutants over the normal |
|
|
Term
| can genetic instability be inherited ? |
|
Definition
| yes...it mostly is caused by mutations |
|
|
Term
| how does the ability to differentiate affect the chance of a cell becoming cancerous? |
|
Definition
| if the ability to differentiate is shut down, cells will divide aimlessly and cause a tumor, and never settle for a certain type of cell |
|
|
Term
| tumor cells have ___________ (increased/decreased) flow of blood to area |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| if you have a diet that is low in vegetables, high in salt, and high in nitrate, what kind of cancer does that predispose you to? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| if you have a diet that is high in fat, low in fiber, and eat fried and broiled foods, what kind of cancer does that predispose you to? |
|
Definition
| pancreas, breast, prostate |
|
|
Term
| How would one use the Ames test to test for mutagenicity? |
|
Definition
| grow a mutant strain go salmonella that does not require histidine. this mutation also causes a DNA repair mechanism. plate bacteria on agar without histidine. whatever grows in excess, is a tumor so you can say that it is a mutagen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fungal toxin from peanuts that causes DNa damage when oxidized |
|
|
Term
| what activates carcinogenes in the Ames test? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do cancer promoters introduce mutations into the DNa |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how does HPV cause cancer? |
|
Definition
| inserts its genome into basal stem cell genome. causes warts |
|
|
Term
| how does HPV block apoptosis? |
|
Definition
| its has two viral proteins, E6 and E7. E7 binds to the Rb protein (stops transcription) Therefore transcription can occur. E binds p53 and induces proliferation |
|
|
Term
| As far as dominant//recessive, how do oncogenes and tumor suppressors work? |
|
Definition
| oncogenes are dominant, while tumor suppressors are recessive. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "gain of function" causes proliferation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| their genes are deleted so that they acquire a "loss of function" activity and promote proliferation |
|
|
Term
| what happens if only one chromosome has a mutation in a tumor suppressor? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how were oncogene identities discovered? |
|
Definition
| possible cancer causing encoding peptides were thrown into a mouse. if a tumor develops, then it is a possible oncogene. Ras was the first one to be found |
|
|
Term
| how may a proto-oncogene be converted to an oncogene? |
|
Definition
| deletion//point mutation, regulatory mutation, gene amplification, chromosome rearrangement |
|
|
Term
| how does Myc turn into an oncogene? |
|
Definition
| via protein amplification |
|
|
Term
| is cdk a protooncogene or an oncogene? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what mutations//pathway do all cancers have? |
|
Definition
| there is a mutation in p16, which shuts off the signals for cell death. encourages cell to divide by inhibiting Rb, cdk4, allows e2k to bind and continue transcription into S phase |
|
|
Term
| is Rb a tumor supressor or an oncogene? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| g-1 cdk is what type of cancer causing thing |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in order for someone to get restinoblastoma, how many copies in their karyotype have to contain a mutation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what happens if there is a mutation in Ras? |
|
Definition
| Ras is a GTPase that needs a signal to cause cell proliferation. however, when there is a mutation, it doesn't even need a signal to divide. it does it on its own |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cell regulatory protein...causes cell to proliferate |
|
|
Term
| what is representative difference analysis? |
|
Definition
| a way to identify tumor suppressor genes |
|
|
Term
| how often is p53 mutated in cancers? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| about what level should p53 be at if it is in a healthy cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| about what level should p53 be at if it is in a sick cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what happens if the gene p53 is damaged? |
|
Definition
| p53 is rather phosphorylated instead of inhibited, which causes cell proliferation |
|
|
Term
| what region of DNA does the p53 bind to? |
|
Definition
| p21, which codes to inhibit Cdk...and causes cell proliferation |
|
|
Term
| is p53 gene a tumor supressor or oncogene? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a synthetic molecule that can inhibit an overactive fusion protein, which would've caused leukemia |
|
|
Term
| what are the three levels of skin? |
|
Definition
| epidermis, dermis, hypodermis |
|
|
Term
| which tissue does the dermis come from? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where is the epidermis derived from? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which layer of skin is leather made from ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which layer of the skin is fatty? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do keratinocytes have nuclei? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what kind of connection do prickle cells have ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do keratinocytes lose their nuclei? |
|
Definition
| they move into the granular level and partially activate apoptosis |
|
|
Term
| what are the levels of epithelial cells from bottom to top? |
|
Definition
| basal cells, prickle cells, granular level, squares |
|
|
Term
| how long does it take a basal stem cell to move to the top of the squames and flake off? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what layer of epidermis gives it its strength? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how are embryonic stem cells different from basal layer stem cells? |
|
Definition
| embryonic cells give rise to cells of a certain type, basal cells give rise to a specific type |
|
|
Term
| what are the two choices of a stem cells going through differentiation? |
|
Definition
| they have the choice to stay a stem cell and they have the choice to differentiate. |
|
|
Term
| how are basal cells attached to the basal lamina? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the two ways that a stem cell can produce unequal daughter cells? |
|
Definition
| through an unequal environment (one may receive a signal that the other does not.) or through asymmetric division |
|
|
Term
| do basal k's have to remain attached to the basal lamina to remain undifferentiated? |
|
Definition
| no, but as they are pushed up, they are forced to differentiate. |
|
|
Term
| what are the differences between transit amplifying cells in the the epidermis and basal stem cells? |
|
Definition
| basal cells can divide indefinitely and at a low rate. they also have a high level of intern beta 1. transit amplifying cells have low concentration of intern beta 1 and divide frequently, but can only divide a certain amount of times |
|
|
Term
| do terminally differentiated epithelial cells contain integrin beta 1? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what kinds of tissues are derived from the embryonic epidermis? |
|
Definition
| sweat, tears, saliva, milk |
|
|
Term
| what makes the milk in breast? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| after birth, how does the breast stop making milk? |
|
Definition
| secretory cells die by apoptosis and macrophages eat the dead cells |
|
|
Term
| where is the nervous system derived from? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what happens at the apical/basal ends of sensory epithelial cells? |
|
Definition
| basal end: new stem neurons are formed. apical: signal transferred to change membrane potential |
|
|
Term
| how many kinds of smell receptors are expressed in each type of olfactory sensory neurons? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the section of the brain that is responsible for that smell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the apparatus that holds auditory hair cells together |
|
|
Term
| what are stereo cilia in the ear filled with? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what happens when a a sound is heard? |
|
Definition
| the frequency hits the auditory hair cells, causing resonance and the hair to vibrate at the corresponding tilting |
|
|
Term
| what happens when cilia in the ear are tilted? |
|
Definition
| ions flow into the cell, causing action potential, releases neurotransmitters, sends signal to the brain |
|
|
Term
| can photoreceptors be replaced? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| can rhodopsin be replaced? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the two types of alveolar walls? |
|
Definition
| Type I are small and allows gas exchange. Type II secrete a surfactant which reduces surface tension ....keeping the alveoli from collapsing. |
|
|
Term
| what is the circulatory system type within alveoli cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the purpose of goblet cells in large airways? |
|
Definition
| secrete mucus..keeps from getting dried out |
|
|
Term
| which embryonic tissue forms the gut and airways? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the difference between squamous cells of the respiratory tract and the squamous cells of the epithelial cells? |
|
Definition
| respiratory cells keep their nucleus and are kept moist |
|
|
Term
| which organ of the digestive tract secretes low pH acid to break down food? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which organ of the digestive system secretes bicarbonate to neutralize pH? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which organs of the digestive tract secrete mucus? |
|
Definition
| small intestine and stomach |
|
|
Term
| where are the microvilli found in the small intestine? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where, what are panneth cell? |
|
Definition
| found in the small intestine, they are the stem cells found at the bottom of microvilli. They remain at the bottom by moving down after each cell division while the other cells move to the top of the villi |
|
|
Term
| what do panneth cells do? |
|
Definition
| sectete defensins which kill bacteria |
|
|
Term
| what controls proliferation in the small intestine? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the name of the macrophage like cell in the liver? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fully differentiated cells in the liver that can regenerate |
|
|
Term
| where is cartilage, bone, fibrous tissue derived from? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where are muscles and the entire vascular system derived from ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where are tubules, ducts, and supporting tissues of gonads and kidneys derived from ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are blood channels in the liver called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what causes new blood vessels to grow? |
|
Definition
| shortage of oxygen --> "hypoxia inducible factor" --> "endothelial growth factor" |
|
|
Term
| where is the epithelia tissue derived from ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| wrap around blood vessels |
|
|
Term
| what are the three types of blood cells? |
|
Definition
| erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets |
|
|
Term
| which type of blood cells transport O2 and Co2? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which blood cell type migrates out of the blood? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where are platelets derived from ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do erythrocytes have a nucleus, ribosomes, or mitochondria? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| of leukocytes, what are the three individual types? |
|
Definition
| lymphocytes, monocytes, granulocytes |
|
|
Term
| how could you tell the difference between a granulocyte and a monocyte? |
|
Definition
| granulocytes have grains in their cytoplasm while monocytes have a clear cytoplasm and a large nucleus. |
|
|
Term
| what are the three types of granulocytes? |
|
Definition
| neutrophil, Eosinophil, basophil |
|
|
Term
| what is the most common type of white blood cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| secrete histamien///like mast cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| destroy parasites, modulate allergic inflammatory response |
|
|
Term
| what other white blood cell do the monocytes work with to phagocytize cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| macrophages and dendritic cells |
|
|
Term
| three types of lymphocytes |
|
Definition
| B cells, T cells, natural killers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| they are broken off from mega karyocytes...which form baby blood cells in the BONE MARROW |
|
|
Term
| how to the white blood cells know to come out of the tissue during an inflammatory response |
|
Definition
| chemotaxis attract released from site...acts as a feedback loop |
|
|
Term
| are t cells formed in the bone marrow? |
|
Definition
| no, but all other cells are |
|
|
Term
| what are the two stem blood cell lines? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do Hemopoietic stem cells survive in culture if they always have to be attached to the stromal cells? |
|
Definition
| they have to constantly be given the right signals |
|
|
Term
| are stromal cells fibroblasts? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when looking at the connection between the stromal cells and the hemiopoetic stem cells, how are they connected? |
|
Definition
| the hsc present Notch, the stromal cells present ligands |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a mutation in the SCf (ligand by stream cells) // and kit (by hsc) |
|
|
Term
| regardless of how stromal cells are connected to the hsc, what is the same? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| precursor of skeletal muscle fibers |
|
|
Term
| what are myoepithelial cells made of? |
|
Definition
| multiple myoblasts fused together |
|
|
Term
| where do myoblasts come from ? which layer |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how is muscle cell length growth achieved |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how is muscle cell size growth achieved |
|
Definition
| addition of myoblasts and contractile fibers |
|
|
Term
| what does myostatin serve as in muscle cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are myoblasts stem cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the types of connective tissues? |
|
Definition
| smooth muscle cells, fat, fibroblasts |
|
|
Term
| where are mesenchymal stem cells found? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| would you be able to grow fibroblasts in culture |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what happens when you take fibroblasts and put them into a culture? |
|
Definition
| they turn into chondrocytes |
|
|
Term
| how do osteoclasts destroy bone? |
|
Definition
| secretion of acid hydrolase |
|
|
Term
| what is the precursor of a osteoclast |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in the development of long bones, what are the two opposing factors? |
|
Definition
| chondorcytes and osteoclasts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| low bone density...osteoclast activity is wining |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| high bone density which means osteoblast activity is winning |
|
|
Term
| what are the two things that stem cells should posses? |
|
Definition
self-renewal: numerous cell divisions
potency: ability to turn into any cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| can differentiate into general embryonic tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| can turn into any of the 3 types of embryonic cell types (mesoderm. endoderm, ectoderm |
|
|
Term
| do embryonic stem cells have high levels of telomerase or low? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| basal layer keratinocytes are what type of stem cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the main function of adult stem cells? |
|
Definition
| regeneration and repair of tissues |
|
|
Term
| what is somatic cell transfer? |
|
Definition
| type of cloning using electric shock of oocyte nucleus |
|
|
Term
| which part of the immune system is fast, but not very specific? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do plants have both types of immune systems? |
|
Definition
| no, they only have innate |
|
|
Term
| the innate immune system has a "general body defense system." what is included in that? |
|
Definition
| chemically low pH in the stomach, skin, and maintenance of stasis by washing out of pathogens |
|
|
Term
| do pathogens HAVE to be coated in order for macrophages and neutrophils to phagocistize them? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the connector cell between the adaptive and innate immune systems? |
|
Definition
| the dendritic cells phagocytize the pathogen and present their parts to the adaptive immune system |
|
|
Term
| are antigens or antibodies on the pathogen? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which type of lymphocyte secretes antibodies? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what type of cell in adaptive response marks pathogen for degradation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are examples of primary lymphoid organs? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is an example of a periphery lymphoid organ? |
|
Definition
| spleen, tonsils, Peye's patches |
|
|
Term
| where are both b and t cells made? |
|
Definition
| both from homeopotic stem cells in the bone marrow, but then t cells migrate to thymus to develop further |
|
|
Term
| whats the difference between a basophil and a mast cell? |
|
Definition
| mast cell resides in the tissues |
|
|
Term
| what is the clonal selection theory? |
|
Definition
| binding of antigen stimulates a lymphocyte both to proliferate and to differentiate into effector cell |
|
|
Term
| how many antibodies are on one b cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which type of b cell secretes antibodies? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| between b and t cells, which one can act long distant? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the part of the antigen called that binds to the antibody? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are memory cells produced from effector cells or naive cells after the presentaiton of an antibody? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how can the lymphocytes learn not to identify their own antigens |
|
Definition
| body cells that have strong affinity for own antigens are killed. also, there is no co-stimulatory signal presented from body's antigens |
|
|
Term
| what are antibodies made of? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how are antibodies attached to memory cells and naive cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how many binding sites does an antigen have? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how doe the hinge region of an antibody help facilitate phagocytosis? |
|
Definition
| its bendy and can take two antigens at the same time |
|
|
Term
| which end of the antibody binding site binds to the antigen? (Carboxylic or n-terminus?) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the 5 types of antibodies? how are they different? |
|
Definition
| MADGE...different in tail regions (the bottom butt end) |
|
|
Term
| what is the first class of antibody made?what is its structure? |
|
Definition
| IgM...pentameter..poor affinity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| expressed after a b cell leaves the bone marrow. only can be expressed in very low concentrations |
|
|
Term
| when forming antibodies, which chain is formed first? |
|
Definition
| heavy chain, then light chain |
|
|
Term
| which antibody has GREAT affinity? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the major class of antibody in the blood? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which is the only antibody that can pass from the mother to the fetus? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which antibody is produced in large quantities in the secondary immune response |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is IgG a monomer or a dimer? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which class of antibodies is found in secretions? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the structure of igA |
|
Definition
| its is a monomer in blood and a dimer in secretions...it has 8 chains |
|
|
Term
| how does IgA get from the extracellular fluid to the lumen? |
|
Definition
| Can be transported through secretory epithelial cells from the extracellular fluid into the secreted fluid by Fc receptor that is unique to secretory epitheli |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| IgE- Empty the histamine granules by Exocytosis, attracts Eosinophils |
|
|
Term
| what are the two types of light chains? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which antibody class is involved in the secondary late response? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how many binding sites does IgG have? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the structures within antibodies variable regions? |
|
Definition
| beta sheets, connected by disulfide bonds, |
|
|
Term
| how are light chains formed? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what can t cells be activated by? |
|
Definition
| dendritic, macrophages, b -cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how many binding sites do t cell receptors have for antigens? |
|
Definition
| 1...formed by an alpha and beta domain |
|
|
Term
| how are t and b cell receptors different? |
|
Definition
t: Can only be membrane-bound
Has two chains: and
Variable and constant domain
One binding site
VDJ – joining
No somatic hypermutation
Weak binding
b: Can be membrane bound or secreted
Has two light and two heavy chains
Variable and constant domains
Two binding sites
VDJ-joining
Somatic hypermutation
Binding gets stronger late in response |
|
|
Term
| what is perforin? which mechanism is this of killing cells? |
|
Definition
| a protein that cytotoxic t cell releases to dig into the pathogen and put proteases through ....induces apoptosis..mechanism 1 |
|
|
Term
| what is the mechanism II of inducin apoptosis in cells? |
|
Definition
| Fas-ligand binding...trimer...actiavtes caspase 8 |
|
|
Term
| what kind of t cells recognize MHC class I |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what kind of t cells recognize MHC class II cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| class II MHC is most likely to be expressed on which type of cell? |
|
Definition
| expressed on specialized antigen-presenting cells (mostly dendritic cells, also B cells and macrophages) |
|
|
Term
| what is the structure of MHC cells? |
|
Definition
| both transmembrane heterodimers with extracellular N-terminal domains that bind antigen for presentation to T cells. |
|
|
Term
| does one type of MHC bind to one type of peptides |
|
Definition
| no, one type of MHC can bind many peptides |
|
|
Term
| how many genes are from mom and dad respectively for MHC proteins? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which MHC binding site will better suit longer peptides? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what section do CD8 and CD4 bind to on MHC |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which t cells express cd8 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which t cells express cd4 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which MHC class presents peptides that were endocytized? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which MHC class presents peptides from cytosol? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is positive and negative selections in the thymus |
|
Definition
Negative selection in the thymus of developing self-reactive T cells: T cells whose receptors bind strongly enough to the complex of a self peptide and a self MHC protein are eliminated.
Positive selection during T cell development: only T cells that can bind to cell’s own MHC proteins should survive. T-cells that cannot bind to MHC proteins at all should die. Cells that bind weakly to MHC-self protein complexes are believed to be able to bind weakly to cell’s own MHC peptides. |
|
|
Term
| how are immunostimulants recognized? |
|
Definition
| pattern recognition receptors |
|
|
