NSHO

1. Natural selection

2. Heritable variation

3. Organisms tend to overproduce

Process by which traits that make an organism more likely to survive/successfully reproduce (most well adapted to their environment) become more abundant within a population, leading to changes in the gene pool/evolution.

Structures or sequences shared through descent from a common ancestor

Ex. Mammalian forelimbs, although they have become adapted for different functions, are constructed from the same basic skeletal elements

Independent evolution of similar features in different lineages due to similar environments

Features are analagous not homologous

Ex. Sugar glider = marsupial, flying squirrel = eutherian, different lineages, both developed the ability to glide through the air

Change in allele frequencies in a population over time (below species level)

Ex. drosophila population evolving from 20% white eyes to 80% white eyes

Ex. mosquitoes developing resistance to DDT

Changes above the species level.

Ex. Origin of humans from more basic hominins.

Ex. Origin of early eukaryotes from prokaryotes.

Evolution of different structures from a common ancestor (branching off the same line).

Similarities in divergent evolution = homologous structures, and are due to a shared ancestor

1. No mutation

2. Random mating

3. No natural selection

4. Infinitely large population

5. No gene flow

NomRom Niggastop Largepop Flow

Land Plants

Non Vascular               Vascular

Bryophyta                 Seed     No Seed

Hepatophyta      Gymno/Angio     Lycophyta Anthocerophyta                             Pterophyta  

Coniferophyta     Anthophyta

Cycadophyta

Ginkophyta

Gnetophyta

Bryophytes

Lack vascular tissue

Dominant gametophyte (n) stage of life cycle

Rhizoids instead of roots

Ex. mosses (bryo), liverworts (hepato), hornworts (anthocero)

Vascular tissue to transport water/minerals through plant body

Dominant sporophyte (2n) stage of life cycle

Ex. Seedless vs. Seed

Seed provides protection/food supply for embryo

Reduced gametophytes = male is pollen

Heterospory = two types of of sporangia, mega(female gametophytes) and micro (male gametophytes)

Evolutionary significane = important adaption to life on land (reproduction/preventing dessication), essential for human survival (food, fuel, medicine)

Ex. gymnosperms (no flowers), angiosperms (flowers)

Contained in ovules of seed plants

Develop into the seed coat

gymno = 1 layer, angio = 2 layers

Non-flowering

Life cycle = two types of cones, ovulate and pollen, sperm is transferred to ovules by pollen

Ex. conifers (conifero), cycads (cycado), ginkgo (ginkgo), mormon tea (gneto)

Flowering

Life cycle = pollen from another anther goes down style, fertilizes egg in ovule

Double fertilization = pollen tube discharges 2 sperm, one to fertilize egg, one to develop into food storage

Ex. flowering plants, nuts, fruits/vegetables (antho)

1. Vertebrates = lampreys = backbone

2. Craniates = hagfish = head

3. Gnathostomes = sharks = jaws

4. Osteichthyans = ray-finned fish = lungs

5. Lobed fins = coelacanths = lobed fins

6. Tetrapods = amphibians = legs

7. Amniotes = reptiles = amniotic egg

8. Mammals = humans (eutherians//placenta), kangaroos (marsupials//pouch), platypus (monotremes//eggs)= milk, hair, larger brain, differentiated teeth

Transition first began with tetrapods which evolved the derived characteristic of limbs from the ancestral characteristic of lobed fins, allowing for better motility on land.

Another key derived characteristic was the amniotic egg, which had a hard shell to prevent desiccation. Amniotes also used their rib cage to help with ventilating their lungs, increasing their lungs' efficiency, allowing them to abandom breathing through their skin (which meant skin did not have to be wet).

1. Pharyngeal slits (suspension feeding, modified into gills/parts of ear/head/neck)

2. Dorsal hollow nerve cord (CNS)

3. Post-anal tail

4. Notochord (backbone)

1. Amnion, surrounds embryo, provides protection (absorbs shock)

2. Allantois, disposal sac for waste

3. Yolk, nutrients

4. Albumen, contains proteins

Process by which unicellular organisms engulf other cells, which ultimately become organelles in the host cell

Ex. eukaryotes acquire mitochondria by engulfing aerobic prokaryotes

Ex. eukaryotes engulf photosynthetic cyanobacteria which become plastids (chloroplasts)

1. capsid (protein shell made of subunits called capsomeres) = encloses viral genome

2. envelope (derived from membranes of host cell) = glycoproteins on the outside recognize and bind to host cell receptors

3. genetic information = use host enzymes to replicate/translate viral genetic information

1. shape (cocci, bacilli, spiral) = adapted to many different environments, very diverse

2. gram negative (more complex cell wall [lipopolysaccharides]) vs. gram positive 9peptidoglycan + plasma membrane) = maintains shape, provides protection

3. capsule (sticky layer around cell wall)/fimbriae (hair like appendages) = adheres to substrates, prevents dessication

4. flagella = motility

5. endospores (resistant cells protected by tough wall) = enable prokaryote to withstand harsh conditions

Small extra-chromosonal rings of DNA in prokaryotes

R-plasmid = antibiotic resistance

F-plasmid = fertility, sex pilus

1. Sunken stomata that reduce water loss

2. Thick/waxy cuticle to conserve water

3. Succulent leaves to store water

4. Deep root system to find more water

5. Reduced leaf area to decrease rate of transpiration

1. Hyphae (network of filaments made up of cells divided by walls called septa) = make up mass called mycelium, helps fungus feed

2. Cell walls made of chitin = strong but flexible protection, provide support

3. Mycorrhizae (mutual relationship b/w fungi/plant roots) = fungus obtains carbohydrates, plant obtains water/mineral nutrients

4. Lichen (fungi/photosynthetic organism) = algae provide carbon compounds and fix nitrogen, fungi provide water/minerals

1. Apical meristem = height/branching

2. Lateral meristem = thickness

3. Xylem = water

4. Phloem = nutrients

1. Stamen = anther (creates pollen, top) + filament (thread), male

2. Pistil = stigma (receives pollen, top) + style (body) + ovary (eggs), female

1. Head = active predation

2. Jaws = predator feeding

3. Legs = motility in terrestrial environments

1. Coelomate = triploblastic (3 germ layers), body cavity from mesoderm

2. Pseudocoeolomate = open circulatory system (hemolymph), pseudocoelom between mesoderm and endoderm

3. Acoelomate = no body cavity, surface area allows for absorption and gas exchage

1. Phytoremediation = using bio tech to turn contaminated lands into usable lands

2. Crop rotation = changing type of crop each year to restore nitrogen in soil.

3. Bioremediation = using organisms to remove pollutatns from the environment

One trait is independently passed down from other traits.

Ex. flower color does not inherit along with seed shape

Phenotypes of homozygous dominant and heterozygous are the same from Mendel's peas

Rr and RR will look same

Heterozygotes are a blend of both parents

Ex. Red + White = Pink offspring

Two alleles affect the phenotype in different ways

Ex. blood type, spotted flowers

One gene responsible for many phenotypic expressions

Ex. Sickle-cell anemia

Many genetic/environmental factors contributing to one phenotype

Ex. skin color, height

a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at another

Ex. fur color in mice

Abnormal number of one chromosome

Ex. trisomy 21 = 3 #21 chromosomes

Orthologous = copies of a gene located on chromosomes of different species because of speciation

Paralogous = copies of gene located on same chromosome because of gene duplication

1. Deletion (lost)

2. Duplication (repeat)

3. Inversion (reverse order)

4. Translocation (segment moves)

Founder = "founding a new colony," small population becomes isolated, allele frequency not representative of larger population

Bottleneck = sudden environmental change, reduces size of population, survivor allele frequency not representative of the population before environmental disaster

Proximate = how, more current

Ultimate = why, has to do with evolution

Inter = females choose

Intra = males compete

1. Phage releases viral DNA in host cell, machinery is hijacked

2. Lytic (phages are made, lyse out of cell) vs. Lysogenic (phage and bacterial DNA integrate, bacterial host divides)

Asexual, very rapid, through binary fission

1. transformation = uptake of foreign DNA from surroundings

2. transduction = phages transport DNA pieces from one cell to another (horizontal gene transfer)

3. conjugation = DNA transferred from one cell to another via sex pillus

1. Conidia = sports involved in asexual reproduction

2. Plasmogamy = union of two parent mycelia

3. Karyogamy = fusion of nuclei

4. Asocarps/Basiciocarps = spore producing fruit bodies

Paleozoic (542-251 mya)

Mesozoic (251-65 mya)

Cenozoic (65-present)

1. Hands/feet for grasping

2.Forward-looking eyes close together on face = depth perception

3. Large brain, short jaw

4. Complex social behavior/social care

5. Opposable thumbs

1. Upright posture + bipedal locomotion

2. Larger brain

3. Language capabilities/symbolic thought

4. Manufacture/use of complex tools

5. Shortened jaw

1. Fleming = penicillin, antimicrobial substance non-toxic to humans

2. Hox genes

3. regulators of cell division using sea urchins

4. RNAi

5. discovery/development of GFP in jellyfish to tag proteins

1. Pheromones released from hyphae of two mycelia

2. Plasmogamy, fusion of cytoplasms

3. Heterokaryotic stage

4. Karyogamy, fusion of nuclei

5. Meiosis, formation of spores

1. Gametophyte (n) produces gamete through mitosis

2. 2 gametophytes unite as a zygote (2n) through fertilization

3. Zygote develops into multicellular sporophyte (2n)

4. Sporophytes produce haploid spores through Meiosis

5. Spores -> multicellular gametophytes

1. Mosquito injects Plamodium sporozites

2. Sporozites enter liver cells, divide/become merozoites

3. Merozoites divide asexually inside RBC's, eventually break out of blood cells

4. Some infect more RBC's, while some form gametocytes

5. Another mosquito bites infected person, picks up Plasmodium gametocytes with blood

6. Gametocytes become gametes, fertilization occurs in mosquito to form a zygote

7. Oocyst develops from zygote, releases thousands of sporozoites

1. Glycoprotein recognizes host cell receptors, allowing virus to fuse with plasma membrane and viral protein/RNA is released into the cell

2. Reverse transcriptase catalyzes synthesis of comp. DNA to form dsDNA

3.dsDNA is incorporated in host cell DNA as a provirus

4. Hacks host cell machinery to become a factory for new viruses

1. Dermal

2. Ground

3. Vascular

1. Ammonifying bacteria w/ nitrogenase

2. N₂ fixing bacteria

3. Nitrifying bacteria

4. Denitrifying bacteria