Term
| Which skin receptors and muscles are connected to which side of the brain? |
|
Definition
| left hemisphere connected to right side and vice versa; exception is both hemispheres control facial and trunk muscles |
|
|
Term
| Which hemisphere sees which side of the world? |
|
Definition
| right hemisphere sees left side and vice versa |
|
|
Term
| Which hemisphere receives auditory information from each ear? |
|
Definition
| The left hemisphere receives information from both ears but slightly stronger from the right ear and vice versa |
|
|
Term
| Which hemisphere receives taste and smell information from which side of the body? |
|
Definition
| each hemisphere receives this kind of information from the same side of the body |
|
|
Term
| What is the corpus collosum? |
|
Definition
| a set of axons that the two hemispheres exchange information through |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the division of labor between the two hemispheres such as the left hemisphere being specialized for language and the right hemisphere being dominant for detecting emotions in others |
|
|
Term
| What is the visual field? |
|
Definition
| what is visible at any moment |
|
|
Term
| Where on the retinas does light from the left visual field fall? |
|
Definition
| on the right side of both retinas |
|
|
Term
| Which part of the retina connects to both hemispheres? |
|
Definition
| a small vertical strip down the center of each retina, covering about 5 degrees of visual arc |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the place where half of the axons from each eye cross to the opposite side of the brain |
|
|
Term
| What is epilepsy characterized by? |
|
Definition
| repeated episodes of excessive synchronized neural activity caused mainly by a decreased release of the inhibitory neurotransmetter GABA |
|
|
Term
| What are some of the possible causes of epilepsy? |
|
Definition
| a mutation in a gene controlling the GABA receptor, trauma or infection in the brain, brain tumor or exposure to toxic substances |
|
|
Term
| What percent of the population is affected by epilepsy? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the point in the brain where the seizures originate |
|
|
Term
| How does cutting the corpus collosum help people with severe epilepsy? |
|
Definition
| it prevents the seizures from crossing to the other hemisphere and prevents the epileptic activity from reverberating between the two hemispheres |
|
|
Term
| What are patients who have had their corpus collosum cut referred to as? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the differences between split-brain patients and regular people? |
|
Definition
| they can use their two hands independently of each other (drawing circles at different speeds), can plan two actions at once, cannot communicate information between hemispheres to combine information |
|
|
Term
| Who performed the experiment with split-brain patients in which the experimenter flashed words or pictures on either side of a screen to show that information that went to one hemisphere could not cross to the other because of the damage to the corpus collosum? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which hemisphere is dominant when understanding speech? |
|
Definition
| they are equal, the right hemisphere is almost as good but has trouble with complex grammar |
|
|
Term
| How does the brain change in the way it works after the corpus collosum has been cut? |
|
Definition
| the brain learns to use smaller connections between the left and right hemispheres |
|
|
Term
| How did the slit-brain patient combine the two words seen by each cortex? |
|
Definition
| drew a literal representation of the two words instead of the meaning when the two are used together (e.g. skyscraper, hotdog) |
|
|
Term
| What are people with left hemisphere damage best at? |
|
Definition
| more adept at reading facial gestures and tone of voice |
|
|
Term
| Which face (left or right)appears happier or sadder? |
|
Definition
| the left because it is perceived by the right hemisphere |
|
|
Term
| What does damage to the right temporal cortex result in? |
|
Definition
| an impaired ability to remember the visual features of various objects |
|
|
Term
| Which section of the temporal cortex is larger in 65% of people? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How long does is take for the corpus collosum to mature? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How does the corpus collosum mature? |
|
Definition
| not a matter of growing new axons, but rather selecting certain axons and discarding others (axons that connect to very similar cells survive) |
|
|
Term
| When does the corpus collosum mature to sufficiently facilitate the comparison of stimuli between the two hands? |
|
Definition
| between ages three and five |
|
|
Term
| Why can people born without a corpus collosum perform some tasks that split-brain patients cannot? |
|
Definition
| their brain develops differently to account for the lack of the corpus collosum |
|
|
Term
| Which type of chimpanzee most closely resembles humans? |
|
Definition
| bonobos (or pygmy) chimpanzees |
|
|
Term
| What were the names of the three bonobo chimpanzees used to study language by Sue Savage-Rumbaugh and Duane Rumbaugh |
|
Definition
| Matata, Kanzi, and Mulika |
|
|
Term
| What age group do the language skills of Kanzi and Mulika resemble? |
|
Definition
| two to two and a half year old children |
|
|
Term
| Who argued that parrots can use sounds meaningfully? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What do we learn from studies of nonhuman language abilities? |
|
Definition
| gain insights into how best to teach language to those who do not learn it easily; these studies also indicate that human language evolved from precursors present in other species |
|
|
Term
| Can a genetic condition impair language without impairing other aspects of intelligence? |
|
Definition
| yes and this indicates that language requires brain specialization, not just brain expansion |
|
|
Term
| What is Williams syndrome caused by? |
|
Definition
| it is caused by a deletion of several genes from chromosome 7, leading to decreased gray matter, especially in brain areas relating to visual processing |
|
|
Term
| How many people does William's syndrome effect? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which types of tasks are impaired in people with William's syndrome? |
|
Definition
| those related to numbers, visiospatial skills (copying a drawing), and spatial perception (finding their way home) |
|
|
Term
| What skills do people with William's syndrome excel at? |
|
Definition
| ability to clap a complex rhythm and memorize songs, friendliness and the ability to interpret facial expressions, and language |
|
|
Term
| How are the language abilities of someone with William's syndrome different from a normal person's? |
|
Definition
| develop it slowly at first, grammar is odd, and tend to use fancy words when a common one would work better |
|
|
Term
| What is a language acquisition device? |
|
Definition
| a built-in mechanism for acquiring language |
|
|
Term
| What is the poverty of the stimulus argument? |
|
Definition
| children use complex grammar structures that they have seldom heard; defends the language acquisition device concept |
|
|
Term
| If someone does not learn any language early in life can they learn one later? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does damage limited to Broca's area result in? |
|
Definition
| only minor or brief language impairment |
|
|
Term
| What is Broca's aphasia (or non fluent aphasia)? |
|
Definition
| when people with brain damage suffer impaired language production (regardless of the location of damage); also have comprehension deficits when the meaning of sentence depends on prepositions, word endings, or unusual word order (when sentence structure is complicated) |
|
|
Term
| What class words do people with Broca's aphasia have trouble with? |
|
Definition
| closed-class words (if, and, but); trouble is with word meanings, not pronunciation |
|
|
Term
| In what situation do normal people speak as if they have Broca's aphasia? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Can people with Broca's aphasia recognize when there are grammatical errors? |
|
Definition
| yes they just can't correct it |
|
|
Term
| What is Wernicke's aphasia characterized by? |
|
Definition
| articulate speech, difficulty finding the right word, and poor language comprehension; describes a certain pattern of behavior, independent of the location of damage |
|
|
Term
| Why is Wernicke's aphasia also known as fluent aphasia? |
|
Definition
| because the person can still speak smoothly |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| difficulty recalling the names of objects |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a specific impairment of reading in someone with adequate vision and adequate skills in other academic areas; more likely to have a bilaterally symmetrical cerebral cortex; children with this show less arousal in the parietal and temporal cortex while reading; most have auditory impairments; have problems with attention |
|
|
Term
| What is one method used to help dyslexics and how do they sometimes respond to this? |
|
Definition
| cut a hole in a piece of paper the size of one word and use that to read; of four adults who went through this process three wanted to go back to the way they were because they could divide their attention better |
|
|
Term
| What is the operational definition of consciousness? |
|
Definition
| if a cooperative person reports the presence of a second stimulus, then he or she was conscious of the first and not the second |
|
|
Term
| What is inattentional blindness (change blindness)? |
|
Definition
| of all that your eyes see at any instant, you are conscious of only those few to which you direct your attention so you are blind to subtle changes in a complex scene |
|
|
Term
| What is binocular rivalry? |
|
Definition
| you see red lines in part of the visual field and green lines in the other (these shifts are slow and gradual, sweeping from one side to another); as the first perception fades and the stimulus seen by the other eye replaces it, the first pattern of brain activity fades also, and a different pattern of activity replaces it |
|
|
Term
| Is consciousness a yes/no phenomenon? |
|
Definition
| yes, people almost always rated their consciousness for a word at either 0 or 100 |
|
|
Term
| What is the phi phenomenon? |
|
Definition
| if you see a dot in one position, alternating with a similar dot nearby, it will seem that the dot is moving back and forth |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a tendency to ignore the left side of the body or the left side of objects (damage in the left hemisphere seldom produces significant neglect of the right side) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a maladaptive pattern of substance use leading to clinically significant inpairment or distress |
|
|
Term
| Who examined the self-stimulation of rats and how did they do it? |
|
Definition
| James Olds and Peter Milner; places rats in a Skinner box and rats were able to press a lever for electrical brain stimulation (pressed as often as 2,000 times per hour) |
|
|
Term
| Which pictures cause an increase in activity in the nucleus accumbens and which caused a decrease in men? |
|
Definition
| pictures of females rated as attractive caused an increase in activity in the nucleus accumbens, while pictures of men rated as attractive caused a decrease in activity |
|
|
Term
| Does activity in the nucleus accumbens relate to "liking" or "wanting"? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens to the brain when the nucleus accumbens becomes sensitized due to addiction? |
|
Definition
| the addiction dominates the persons attention and the nucleus accumbens responds more strongly to it |
|
|
Term
| What happens when a person receives an addictive drug during the withdrawal period? |
|
Definition
| it is a powerful experience that produces sensitization and the user learns that the drug relieves the distress caused by drug withdrawal and produces heightened effects at that time |
|
|
Term
| What is alcoholism (alcohol dependence)? |
|
Definition
| the continued use of alcohol despite medical or social harm, even after people have decided to quit or decrease their drinking |
|
|
Term
| What is Type I Alcoholism characterized by? |
|
Definition
| later onset (usually after 25), gradual onset, fewer genetic relatives with alcoholism, men and women effected equally, generally less severe |
|
|
Term
| What is Type II alcoholism characterized by? |
|
Definition
| earlier onset (usually before 25), more rapid onset, more genetic relatives with alcoholism, effects men far more than women, often severe and associated with criminality |
|
|
Term
| What factor could play a bigger role than a genetic basis in determining a person's probability of developing alcoholism? |
|
Definition
| how much the mother drank during pregnancy |
|
|
Term
| Genes that increase this chemical in the body decrease alcohol use because of their calming influence? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the differences between son's of alcoholics and normal people? |
|
Definition
| show less intoxication after consuming a moderate amount of alcohol, alcohol decreases stress even more than is normal, have a smaller than normal amygdala in the right hemisphere (indicates predisposition to alcoholism) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a poisonous substance that enzymes in the liver metabolize after someone drinks ethyl alcohol |
|
|
Term
| What is the chemical acetaldehyde converted to and what does that chemical do? |
|
Definition
| acetic acid; a chemical that the body can use as a source of energy |
|
|
Term
| What drug antagonizes the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase so that it cannot convert acetaldehyde into acetic acid by binding to its copper ion? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How was antabuse discovered? |
|
Definition
| workers in a rubber plant got some of the chemical on their skin on accident and noticed they couldn't drink without getting sick |
|
|
Term
| How effective is Antabuse? |
|
Definition
| it only works when the alcoholic has a strong will to quit; its more the act of taking the pill every day and imagining the illness that could follow a drink that reaffirms the decision to abstain |
|
|
Term
| What prevents heroin addicts from dissolving the methadone pill and injecting it? |
|
Definition
| the drug is combined with a small amount of the drug naloxone, which blocks the effects of the methadone, and when taken orally the naloxone is broken down into an inactive form but this does not have a chance to happen when the drug is injected |
|
|
Term
| What do people with major depression experience? |
|
Definition
| they feel sad and helpless every day for weeks at a time, have little energy, feel worthless, contemplate suicide, have trouble sleeping, cannot concentrate, get little pleasure from sex or food, and in many cases can hardly even imagine being happy again |
|
|
Term
| For whom is the risk of depression highest? |
|
Definition
| relatives of women with early-onset depression (before age 30) |
|
|
Term
| Which combinations (long and short genes) of the serotonin transporter protein gene result in which levels of depression? |
|
Definition
two short genes: high likelihood for depression
two long genes: low likelihood for depression
one short/one long: neutral |
|
|
Term
| How does the serotonin transporter protein gene probably effect depression? |
|
Definition
| probably alters the way people react to stress |
|
|
Term
| What is postpartum depression and what percent of the population is effected? |
|
Definition
| depression after giving birth; about 20% of women that give birth |
|
|
Term
| How do most women recover from postpartum depression and what percent enter a serious long-lasting depression? |
|
Definition
| most recover without treatment; about 0.1% |
|
|
Term
| What supplement has been shown to help depressed women going through menopause? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which part of the cortex is found to result in increased activity for happy people? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which part of the cortex is found to result in increased activity for depressed people? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is Borna disease characterized by? |
|
Definition
| a virus noted mostly by its behavioral effects, such as periods of frantic activity alternating with periods of inactivity |
|
|
Term
| What are the tricyclic class of antidepressants characterized by? |
|
Definition
| operate by preventing the presynaptic neuron from reabsorbing serotonin, dopamine, or norepinephrine after releasing them (causes the neurotransmitters to remain in the synaptic cleft longer and continue stimulating the postsynaptic cell |
|
|
Term
| What are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI's) characterized by? |
|
Definition
| similar to trycyclics but specific to the neurotransmitter serotonin; produce only mild side effects |
|
|
Term
| What are monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI's) characterized by? |
|
Definition
| block the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO), a presynaptic terminal enzyme that metabolizes catecholamines and serotonin into inactive forms; when MAOI's block this enzyme,the presynaptic terminal has more of its transmitter available for release; must avoid foods containing tyramine |
|
|
Term
| What are atypical antidepressants characterized by? |
|
Definition
| a miscellaneous group of drugs with antidepressant effects and mild side effects (e.g. bupropion [Wellbutrin], which inhibits reuptake of dopamine and to some extent norepinephrine but not serotonin) |
|
|
Term
| What percent of depressed patients show significant improvement after a few months of taking antidepressants? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are some other options for treatment other than antidepressants? |
|
Definition
| psychotherapy and cognitive therapy |
|
|
Term
| What is electroconvulsive therapy (ETC)? |
|
Definition
| treatment through an electrically induced seizure; given bad history from uncontrolled experiments on mental hospital patients; not effective on schizophrenia patients but does work to treat depression |
|
|
Term
| What is the quickest known way to treat depression? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is unipolar disorder? |
|
Definition
| vary between normality and one pole - depression |
|
|
Term
| What is bipolar disorder (manic-depressive disorder)? |
|
Definition
| alternate between two poles (depression and mania) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| characterized by restless activity, excitiment, laughter, self-confidence, rambling speech and loss of inhibitions |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between Bipolar I disorder and Bipolar II disorder? |
|
Definition
| people with full-blown episodes of mania are said to have bipolar I disorder, while people with bipolar II disorder have much milder manic phases, called hypomania, which are characterized mostly by agitation or anxiety |
|
|
Term
| What chance does a monozygotic twin have of having bipolar disorder if his/her twin does? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How do lithium salts help treat bipolar disorder? |
|
Definition
| it stabilizes mood, preventing a relapse into either mania or depression; dose must be regulated carefully |
|
|
Term
| What is seasonal affective disorder (SAD)? |
|
Definition
| depression that regularly recurs during a particular season, such as winter; most prevalent near the poles; possible to treat with very bright lights for an hour or more each day |
|
|
Term
| Why are bright lights effective at treating SAD? |
|
Definition
| most likely affects serotonin synapses and alters circadian rhythms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a disorder characterized by deteriorating ability to function in everyday life and by some combination of hallucinations, delusions, thought disorder, movement disorder, and inappropriate emotional expressions |
|
|
Term
| What is an acute condition of schizophrenia characterized by? |
|
Definition
| has a sudden onset and good prospects for recovery |
|
|
Term
| What is a chronic condition of schizophrenia characterized by? |
|
Definition
| has a gradual onset and a long-term course |
|
|
Term
| What are the differences between positive and negative symptoms in relation to schizophrenia? |
|
Definition
positive: behaviors that should be absent
negative: behaviors that are absent that should be present |
|
|
Term
| What two clusters do positive symptoms usually fall into? |
|
Definition
| psychotic and disorganized |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| unfounded beliefs, such as the conviction that one is being persecuted or that outer space aliens are trying to control one's behavior |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| abnormal sensory experiences, such as hearing voices when one is alone |
|
|
Term
| What does the disorganized cluster of positive symptoms consist of? |
|
Definition
| inappropriate emotional displays, bizarre behaviors, and thought disorder |
|
|
Term
| What is the most typical thought disorder associated with schizophrenia? |
|
Definition
| a difficulty understanding and using abstract concepts |
|
|
Term
| What is the possible cause of schizophrenia? |
|
Definition
| disordered thoughts, which result from abnormal interactions between the cortex and the thalamus and cerebellum |
|
|
Term
| What is a differential diagnosis? |
|
Definition
| ruling out other conditions that might produce similar symptoms |
|
|
Term
| What strong piece of evidence was found that shows that there is a strong genetic influence related to schizophrenia? |
|
Definition
| monozygotic twins who thought they weren't that have a history of schizophrenia have a much higher chance of getting it than dizygotic twins who thought they were monozygotic |
|
|
Term
| What is the most convincing argument against a genetic basis for schizophrenia? |
|
Definition
| people with schizophrenia tend to die younger and have less children so shouldn't natural selection be decreasing the prevalence of the disease |
|
|
Term
| What is the neurodevelopmental hypothesis? |
|
Definition
| schizophrenia is based on abnormalities in the prenatal (before birth) or neonatal (newborn) development of the nervous system, which lead to subtle abnormalities in behavior |
|
|
Term
| What is the season-of-birth effect? |
|
Definition
| the tendency for people born in winter to have a slightly (5% to 8%) greater probability of developing schizophrenia than people born at other times of the year |
|
|
Term
| What might account for the season-of-birth effect? |
|
Definition
| complications of delivery or early nutrition or viral infection (influenza and other viral epidemics are most common in the fall) |
|
|
Term
| How might the parasite Toxoplasma gondii cause schizophrenia? |
|
Definition
| can impair brain development and lead to memory disorder, hallucinations, and delusions |
|
|
Term
| Which part of the brain in patients with schizophrenia is the same size in both hemispheres unlike most people? |
|
Definition
| the right planum temporale |
|
|
Term
| Is the brain damage associated with schizophrenia progressive? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How does chlorpromazine (Thorazine) help patients with schizophrenia? |
|
Definition
| relieves the positive symptoms of schizophrenia for most, but not all patients |
|
|
Term
| What two categories are there for antipsychotic (nueroleptic) drugs? |
|
Definition
| phenothiazines and butyrophenones |
|
|
Term
| What is the dopamine hypotheses of schizophrenia? |
|
Definition
| holds that schizophrenia results from excess activity at dopamine synapses in certain brain areas |
|
|
Term
| What is substance-induced psychotic disorder? |
|
Definition
| characterized by hallucinations and delusions |
|
|
Term
| What is the glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia? |
|
Definition
| the problem relates in part to deficient activity at glutamate synapses |
|
|
Term
| What is phencyclidine (PCP)? |
|
Definition
| a drug that inhibits the NMDA glutamate receptors |
|
|
Term
| What is the mesolimbocortical system? |
|
Definition
| a set of neurons that project from the midbrain tegmentum to the limbic system |
|
|
Term
| What is tardive dyskinesia? |
|
Definition
| characterized by tremors and other involuntary movements that develop gradually and to varying degrees among different patients |
|
|
Term
| What are second-generation antipsychotics? |
|
Definition
| atypical antipsychotics; alleviate schizophrenia but seldom if ever produce movement problems |
|
|
