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Details

Biopsych - Final Review
Basic Drives, Homostatis, Language, Intellience, Cognitive Functioning, Learning + Memory, Psychological Disorders
184
Psychology
Graduate
11/10/2011

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
We get information about our body from what two systems?
Definition
Somatosensory System and Vestibular System
Term
Somatosenses include...
Definition

The skin senses (Surface of body conditions)

 

Proprioception (Information about limb and body position and movement)

 

Interoceptive System (Sensations in our internal organs)

Term
Vestibular systems informs...
Definition

Head position and movement (known as the vestibular sense)

 

Vestibular System sends projections to the cerebellum and the brain stem.

 

Term
Vestibular Organs are found in_____ and are called _____, ______, and _______.
Definition

Found in Inner Ear

Called the semiciruclar canals, the utricle, and saccule

Term
Parieto-Insular-Vestibular Cortex
Definition
The site of moevement induced dizziness and nausea.
Term
What are the four skin senses and what are the two general types of receptors?
Definition

Touch, Warmth, Cold, Pain

 

General Receptors: 

1) Free Nerve Endings - processes at the ends of neurons that detect warmth, cold, and pain 

 

2) Encapsulated Receptors - More complex structures enclosed in a membrane to detect touch

 

Term
Dermatones are...
Definition

Segments of the body that are served by spinal nerves. One dermatone to one spinal or cranial nerve.

 

Neruons (Spinal or cranial) cross from one side of the body to the other side of the brain -- this makes it so that touch on the right is processed in the left hemisphere and vice versa. 

Term
Describe the process through which body sense information is percieved by the somatosensory system.
Definition

Body Sense ---(Spinal & Cranial Nerves)-----> Thalamus

 

Thalamus -----(Body Sense Neurons)------> Somatosensory Cortex

 

Body sense information enters the spinal cord via spinal nerves or brain via cranial nerves and travels to the thalamus. From the thalamus it then goes up body sense nurons to the somatosensory cortex located in the parietal lobes

 

Term
Somatosensory Homunculus means...
Definition

Some cortical neurons have receptive fields on the skin and processing is hierarchical

Term
What is the stimulus for vision?
Definition
Visable Light - Part of the electromagnetic spectrum
Term
The electromagnetic spectrum
Definition

Includes a variety of energy forms

-Gamma rays are at one extreme of frequency

-The visable part of the spectrum accounts for only 1/70 of the range

Term
Wavelength
Definition

Used to describe light

 

Wavelength is the distance the oscillating energy travels before it reverses direction

 

Visible light ranges in wavelength from 300nm to 800 nm

Term
The Retina
Definition

At the back of the eye

 

Contains two main types of light-sensitive photoreceptors - Rods and Cones

Term
Rods
Definition

Contains photopigment which breaks down in the presence of light -- Specifically, Rods contain Rhodospin which is extremely sensitive to light

 

Rods work well in dim light and poor in bright light.

 

They distinguish only different levels of light.

 

 

In terms of receptive fields:

-Many rods to each ganglion cell = even more enhanced sensitivity to light

-Numerous in the periphery, absent in the center (fova)

 

Term
Cones
Definition

Contain Photopigment which breaks down in the presence of light. Specifically, cones contain iodopsin which requires bright light to function.

 

Cones work well in daylight and nonfunctional in dime light

 

Three types of iodopsin allow the cones to distnguish among different wavelengths

 

In relation to receptive fields:

-Few cones to each ganglion cell

-Each cone has it's own ganglion cell = visual acuity (the ability to distinguish details).

-Cones are numerous in the center (fovea) and decrease towards the periphery.

 

 

Term
Bipolar Cells
Definition

Cells that the cones and rods connect to.

 

Photoreceptors (Rods and Cones) are most active in the darkness -- Sodium and Calcium channels are open and the receptor is depolarized, causing it to release glutamate which inhibits the bipolar cells.

Term
Ganglion Cells
Definition

Cells that bipolar cells connect to

 

When light strikes the photopigment (in the rods and cones), sodium and calcium channels close and reduce glutamate release.

 

This causes bipolar cells to release more transmitter which increases the firing rate in the ganglion cells.

 

Term
Receptive Field
Definition

Area of the retina from which a ganglion cell (or any other cell in visual system) recieves its input 

 

Receptive field of cones are small

Receptive field of Rods are larger

 

Term
The Blind Spot
Definition

No receptors where the optic nerve exits the eye

 

Term
The Optic Chiasm
Definition

Where the two optic nerves join (for a short distance) just in front of the pitutiary gland.

Term
Lateral Geniculate Nuclei
Definition

Located in the thalamus and where the first synapse the axons from the ganglion cells that form the optic nerves will connect with.

Term
Optic Nerves
Definition

Axons of retinal ganglion cells that have joined together and pass out of each eye

Term
The Visual Field
Definition

The part of the environemtn that is being registered on the retina.

 

Information from the left visual field is detected by the right half of each retina and transmitted to the right hemisphere.

 

Vice Versa: Image in the right visual field wil be detected by the left half of each retina and projected to the left hemisphere.

Term
Detail the path of the optic nerves from eye to the brain
Definition

Optic Nerves (Axons of retinal ganglion cells) pass out of each eye exiting at the blind spot and joining momentarily at the optic chaism. 

 

At the optic chaism, the nerves or bundle of axons from the nasal sides of the eyes cross to the other side and go to the opposite visual cortex by way of the Lateral Geniculate Nuclei (LGN) in the thalamus.

 

Neurons from the outside (temporal side) DO NOT cross over at the optic chaism, but stay on the same side and head towards the same side visual cortex by way of the LGN in the thalamus.

 

Term
Retinal Dispairty
Definition

Caused by the separation between the eyes

 

More distant objects cast their image toward the nasal (inside) side of the retina

 

Closer objects case their image toward the temporal (outside) part of the retina

 

In the visual cortex, different nuerons fire depending on the image's displacement on the two retinas, providing information about the object's distance.

 

The anterior parietal cortex combines this depth info. with info. about the object's shape and location to provide 3D location of objects.

Term
Parvocellular System
Definition

Visual info. travels from the retina to the brain in the parvocellular system.

 

System is specialized for discrimination of fine detail and discimination of color

     -This is because the receptive fields are circular, small, and color opponent

 

Parvocellular ganglion cells located mostly in the fovea

 

Term
Magnocellular Systems
Definition

Visual info. travels from the retina to the brain in the magnocellular system

 

Ganglion cells located mostly in the periphery

 

Magnocellular system is specialized for brightness contrast and for movement

     -This is because they have larger circular receptive fields that are brightness opponent and respond only briefly to stimulation.

Term
Visual Ventral Stream
Definition

Dominated by the Parvocellular system

 

Concerned with color perception & Object Recognition

     -Projects to the inferior temporal cortext, providing object recognition

 

Is the visual "what" processor

 

Ventral Stream Path: Visual Cortex----> V1, V2 & V4 ----> Inferior temporal cortex---->Prefrontal Cortex (for managing information in memory & integrating information about the body and about objects while planning movements)

 

People with damage to the ventral stream can see objects, reach for them, and walk around them, but cannot identify the objects.

Term
Visual Dorsal Stream
Definition

Dominated by the magnocellular system

 

Concerned with movement and location of objects in space

     -Projects to the posterior parietal area, which provides location of objects in space.

 

Visual "where" processor

 

Dorsal Stream path is: Visual Cortex --->V5/MT & MST ----> Posterior Parietal ----> Prefrontal Cortex (Used for managing information in memory and integrating information about the body and objects while planning movements)

 

People with damange to the dorsal stream can identify objects, but they have trouble orienting their gaze toward objects, reaching accurately, and shaping their hands to grasp and object using visual cues.

Term
Object Agnosia
Definition

Damage to the inferior temporal cortex

 

Impaired ability to recognize objects

Term
Prosopagnosia
Definition

Damage to the inferior temporal cortex

 

Inability to visually recognize familar faces

 

Does not involve memory -- people can be identified by speech or mannerisms.

Term
Damage to the posterior parietal cortex (i.e. Dorsal Stream) does what?
Definition

The posterior parietal cortex combines input from visual, auditory, and somatosensory areas to help locate objects in space and orient body to the environment...

 

Damage impairs abilities such as reaching for objects

 

It also produces neglect

Term
Neglect
Definition

Patient ignores visual, touch, and auditory stimulation on the side opposite the injury.

 

Usually results from injury in the right hemisphere

 

NOT due to any visual processing defect, but defect in attention

 

Symptoms can be seen in drawings, which lack detail on the left side.

Term
The Binding Problem
Definition

How the brain combines info. from different areas into a whole 

 

It is suggested this combinging or "binding" might occur in:

1) part of the superior temporal gyrus-it recieves info. from both dorsal and ventral streams.

2) part of the pareital cortex, where damage causes neglect

3) in frontal areas where both streams converage

 

 

 

Term
Visual awareness is distributed throughout __ areas of the cortex concerned with vision and their pathways
Definition
32
Term
Nociceptors
Definition

They are the pain receptors.

 

Sensitive to stimulation that begin near levels that damage tissue.

Term
When does pain begin?
Definition

When certian free nerve endings are stimulated by intense pressure, temperature, damange to tissue, or various chemicals.

Term
Signaling Molecules
Definition

released when intense stimulation occurs.

 

Referred to as "inflammatory soup"

Term
What are the two routes pain information travels to the spinal cord?
Definition

1) Sharp pain right after injury has occured -- transmitted by large, myelinated A-delta fibers

 

2) Delayed, longer lasting dull pain -- transmitted by small, unmyelinated fibers

Term
What two substances can pain neurons in the spinal cord release during pain stimulation?
Definition

Glutamate

 

Substance P -- for intense pain stimulation

Term
What is the neural route pain information travels?
Definition

Through the thalamus to the

somatosensory cortex to

areas that process emotional aspects of pain.

Term
What are the EXTERNAL ways of treating pain?
Definition

Local anesthetics

General anesthetics

Common pain medications like aspirin

Morphine and opiate drugs for intense pain

Term
How to local anesthetics work?
Definition

They block sodium channels in the pain neurons and reduce their ability to fire.

Term
General anesthetics act in the _____.
Definition
CNS
Term
How do common place medications work?
Definition

Reduce inflammation by suppresing prostaglandin synthesis

Term
What are two internal mechanisms of pain relief?
Definition

Endorphins

Gate control theory

Term
What are endorphines?
Definition

They are both neurotransmitter and hormone

they act as opiate receptors in many parts of the nervous system.

Term
What are the conditions in which endorphines are released and reduce pain?
Definition

-inescapable shock

-physical stress

-acupuncture

-vaginal stimulation (most likely linked to childbirth)

-placebo administration

 

Term
What are the pain relieving stimulus conditions that do not depend on endorphins?
Definition

Hypnosis

Acupuncture near the pain site.

Term
Gate Control Theory - Who proposed it, and what is it?
Definition

Proposed by Melzack and Wall

Theory of a circuit invovled in internal pain relief:

-Pressure triggers an inhibitory message that closes a neural "gate" in the pain pathway

-Brain determines whether gate is open or closed.

Term
Explain the Descending Pain Inhibition Circut (evidence of Gate Theory)
Definition

Pain causes the release of endorphins from the gray matter in the brain stem.

 

This inhibits the release of substance P, closing the pain "gate" in the spinal cord.

 

The endorphine circuit is activated by the cingulate cortex during placebo administration, and by the amygdala during fear.

Term
Chronic Pain
Definition

Pain that persists after healing has occured

 

Involves Neuropathic pain, which is caused by damange to the CNS or PNS

 

There are genes that can increase susceptibility to chronic pain

 

During chronic pain, several changes occur in the PNS and CNS including loss of gray matter equivalent to aging 10-20 years.

Term
What is the difference between Nociceptive pain and Neuropathic pain?
Definition

Nociceptive pain invovles activation of the pain receptors, while Neuropathic pain is caused by damage to the CNS or PNS.

 

Neuropathic pain (chronic pain) persists after Nociceptive pain is gone.

Term
Phantom Pain
Definition

80%-90% of amputees experience phantom in the missing limb.

 

Doidge reports 95% of amputees report phantom pain that lasts a lifetime.

 

Neurons from other body areas incade the area that normally recieves input from the missing limb.

 

Ex: When areas of the upper arm are touched, they might stimulate phantom pain in a missing hand.

Term
How can phantom pain be treated with neuroplasticity?
Definition

Functional Prosthesis or the mirror box illusion reverses the cortical reorganization and provides pain relief.

 

 

Term

How does the mirror box effect work?

Definition

-It activates mirror neurons in the area that once served the missing limb.

-This activity is interpreted as real touch and movement, and this stimules reorganization

Term
Motivation
Definition

To set in motion

Refers to the factors that initiate, sustain, and direct behaviors

Term
What are theoretical approaches to motivation?
Definition

Instinct

Drive Theory

Incentive Theory

Arousal Theory

Term
Instinct
Definition

A complex behavior that is automatic and unlearned, and occurs in all members of a species

 

Instincts account for few if any behaviors in humans.

 

Ex: Maternal behavior

Term
Drive Theory
Definition

The body maintains homeostasis (equilibrium) inn its systems

 

Departure from homeostatis produces an aroused condition (drive) that impells the individual to engage in action to return to homeostasis.

Term
Incentive Theory
Definition

People are motivated by external stimuli (incentives), not just internal needs

 

Incentives can include money, grades, the smell of food.

Term
Arousal Theory
Definition

People behavior in ways that keep them at their preferred level of arousal.

 

Factors into things like sensation seeking. -- If they function at a high level arousal, they will behavior in away that keeps them there.

 

 

Term
Psychologists have shifted emphasis on drives as states of the rather than as conditions of the tissues in response to what theory?
Definition
Drive Theory
Term
What are homeostatic drives and what do they do? 
Definition

Homestatic drives are a "control system" that maintains conditions around a set point.

 

Include

Temperature Regulation

Thirst

Hunger

Taste

Term
Ectotherms
Definition

Cannot regulate body temperature internally

Term
Endotherms
Definition

Regulate body temperature by dialating or constricting blood vessels, adjusting metabolism, sweating, etc.

 

 

Term
Describe the process of temperature regulation.
Definition

Warm and cold senstive cells in "preoptic area" of the hypothalamus get input from the blood and skin

 

The preoptic area initiates temperature regulating responses

Term
Preopotic Area
Definition

In the hypothalamus

 

recieves input from blood and skin about temperature and initiates regulating responses.

Term
Thirst has two types, what are they?
Definition

Osmotic Thirst - Thirst of the cells

Hypovolemic Thirst - Thirst of the blood, caused by extracellular water loss

Term

Our cells are made of ____% water.

 

Definition
70%
Term
Osmotic Thirst
Definition

Occurs when fluid INSIDE the cells are decreases.

 

This decrease occurs because the blood is more concentrated ususally do to food intake w/o water.

 

Because of this, the bloodstream draws water from the cells to dilute it, making the cells Osmotically Thirsty.

 

Process: Hypothalamus detects the loss due to the OVLT (near 3rd ventricle) ---> OLVT signals Median Preoptic Nucleus in the hypothalamus to initate drinking.

Term
Hypovolemic Thirst
Definition

Occurs when the blood volume drops due to loss of extracellular water.

 

Caused by Diarrhea, sweating, vomiting, or loss of blood.

 

Process: Lowered blood volume detected in heart and kidneys

Heart talks to the vagus nerve--> vagus nerve talks to the nucleus of the solitary tract in the Medulla and the Median preoptic nucleus in the hypothalmus

 

Kidneys release hormone renin --> renin increases production of angiotensin II ---> which stimulates subfornical organ --> signals the median preoptic nucleus in the hypothalamus

 

 

Term
What are the two types of triggers for hunger?
Definition

Physiological - growth spurts, high energy days, stress

 

Psychological - Eating disorders, body image, depression

Term
What is Hunger?
Definition

A homostatic drive that produces behavior to provide energy for fuel that maintains body temperature and material needed for growth and repair.

Term
What are the 5 primary tasts to help select safe and nutritious foods?
Definition

Naturally sweet foods = nutrition

Salty foods = ions for neural transmission

Sour foods = spoiled

Bitter foods = toxic

Umami taste = select protiens

 

 

 

Term
How do receptors in the tongue's taste buds process taste?
Definition

The taste bud receptors send signals to the insula which is in the frontal lobes and then to the Nucleus of the Solitary Tract (NST) in the medulla.

 

Think Frontal then Medulla

Term
Learned Taste Preference
Definition

Preference for the flavor of a food that contains a needed nutrient.

 

Not to be confused with distraction of tasty, high-calorie foods not found in nature.

Term
Describe the process of digestion
Definition

Begins in the mouth - saliva enzyme starts the breakdown of food.

 

Next, stomach - food is mixed with hydrochloric acid and pepsin to further breakdown food

     -Most of this process happens in the small

      intestine (Duodenum - initial 25 cm)

 

Produts of digestion (Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol) are absorbed thorugh the intestinal walls

 

The nutrients are then taken to the liver by the hepatic portal vein

Term
What are the products of digestion?
Definition

Glucose

Amino acids

fatty acids

glycerol

Term
What are the two phases of the feeding cycle?
Definition

Absorbative phase

Fasting Phase

Term
What is the process of the absorptive phase of the feeding cycle?
Definition

During this phase, the body uses the nutrients arriving from digestive system

 

In away, this is like the "Full" phase, or getting to "Full" phase. When the parasympathetic system is activated, it is all about calming the body down, using what's available to satiate systems.

 

Increase in glucose turns on the Parasympathetic system which releases insulin -- In the parasympathetic system (cells outside of the CNS), this insulin turns on glucose transporters which carry glucose to the cells.

 

In the brain/CNS, insulin is not needed, so CNS cells get direct/priority access to glucose.

 

Nutrients can also be stored during this phase

     -Glucose turns to glycogen in the liver and

      muscles

     -Excess glucose is converted to fats and

      stored in adipose tissue

Term
What is the process of the fasting phase during the feeding cycle?
Definition

During this phase, glucose levels have fallen and the body must rely on stored nutrients.

 

This is like the "hungry phase" when the sympathetic nervous system is activated, the body starts moving to get what it needs.

 

The sympathetic nervous system causes release of glucagon, which turns livers glycogen to glucose

 

This glucose gets sent only to the brain because insulin levels are low.

 

Glucagon, secreted by the pancreas, breaks down fat and fatty acids (used by muscles and organs)  and glycerol (converted to glucose for the brain)

Term
What brain structures coordinate cycles of feeding and fasting?
Definition

The lateral hypothalamus - initates eating and controls aspects of feeding and metabolic responses

 

Parventricular Nucleus - controls metabolic functions

Term
What is the primary source of energy for most of the functions in our bodies?
Definition
Glucose
Term
What are the three major signals of hunger?
Definition

A glucose Deficit - Glucoprivic Hunger

A fatty acids deficit - Lipoprivic Hunger

Ghrelin - released when the stomach empties

Term
What are glucoprivic hunger and lipoprivic hunger and how do they signal that we are hungry?
Definition

Glucoprivic - Glucose deficit

Lipoprivic - Fatty Acid deficit

 

The signals are carried by the vagus nerve to the NST (Nucleus of the Solitary Tract) in the medulla then to the arcuate nucleus, which is in the hypothalamus -- it is the nutrient regulator.

Term
What structure in the brain is known as the "nutritent regulator?"
Definition

The Arcuate Nucleus in the hypothalamus.

Term
What is Ghrelin and how does it signal that we are hungry?
Definition

Ghrelin is released when the stomach empties.

 

It signals hunger when it reaches the NST (Neculus of the solitary tract) via the blood stream

 

The NST talks diretly to the arcuate nucleus in the hypothalamus

 

The arcuate nucleus sends neurons to the lateral hypothalamus and the PVN.

Term
What are signals that let us know to quit eating long before the nutrients have been absorbed into the body tissues?
Definition

Stretch or volume receptors in the stomach signal meal size.

 

Stomach and intenstines release certian peptides in response to types of food -- some of these peptides act as signals to the brain

---The best known of these petides is cholecystokinin (CCK) -- released as food passes into the duodenum (first 25 cm. of the small intestine)

---------CCK detets fats and aids in fat digestion by causing the gall bladder to release bile

---------CCK stimulates the vagus nerve, which stimulates the NST, which talks to the hypothalamus that tells us to quit eating.

Term
THe process of satiation (for hunger) invovles ____, _____, and _____.
Definition

Little is known about satiation, but it invovles the mouth, stomach, and intestinal factors. 

Term
How is sex like hunger and thirst (i.e. a motivation)?
Definition

It involves arousal and satiation

Involves hormonal control

controlled by specific areas of the brain

Term
How is sex different from hunger and thirst (i.e. not like a motivation)? 
Definition

Does nto fit the pattern of a homeostatic tissue need

Individuals do not require sex for survival

but SPECIES require sex and reporduction to survive

Term
What are the four phases of sexual response?
Definition

Excitement phase

Plateau phase

Orgasm

Resolution

Term
Excitement phase
Definition

Period of arousal and preparation for intercourse

 

Increased heart rate, blood pressure, and muscle tension -- Males become erect, women clitoris swells, breasts swell

Term
Plateau Phase
Definition

Increase in sexual arousal levels off

 

Preparation for orgasms - women secrete lubrication, males testes rise in preparation for ejaculation

Term
Orgasm
Definition

Rhythmic contractions occur in the vagina and those in the penis are accompanied by ejaculation.

Term
Resolution
Definition

follows as arousal decreases and the body returns to its previous state

 

Males have a refractory period during the resolution phase whre they cannot become aroused or ejaculate again (this varies with age and across life span)

 

Females do not have a refractory period and can become aroused again during the resolution

Term
What causes Arousal?
Definition

Attraction - but this varies from human to human and within the same individual over time.

 

Brain Structures - the amygdala which is involved in emotions -- connected to past experiences & plasticity

 

Hormones

Term
Androgens
Definition

Class of hormones responsible for a number of male characteristics (Testosterone is part of the Androgen class)

Term
What is testosterone important for both men and women?
Definition

Testosterone levels go up on evenings for men after they have had sex, but down for both parties when they have not.

 

Women are most likely to initiate sex in the middle of their cycle, when Estrogens and Androgens (like Testosterone) are at their peak.

Term
Estrogen
Definition

A class of hormones responsible for a number of female characteristics and functions

Term
Castration
Definition

Removal of the gonads (testes or overies) removes the major source of sex hormones

 

results in loss of sexual motivation in both sexes.

 

Castration with drugs can be elected by male prisoners to control aggression and sexual predation.

Term
What are the important brain areas related to sex for males and females?
Definition

Medial Preoptic Area of the Hypothalamus (MPOA) -- mostly for men -- more important in performance than sexual motivation

 

Medial Amygdala in the temporal lobe -- involved in sexual behavior, aggression, and emotions -- stimulation of this area causes release in Dopamine

Term
What are the brain areas related to sex that are important for just females?
Definition

Ventromedial hypothalamus - activity increases during copulation. Is important for receptivity to male advances.

Term
What are the brain areas related to sex that are important just for males?
Definition

Pareventricular nucleus - important for performance

 

Sexually dimorphic nucleus, located in the MPOA, male sexual activity is related to its size and size is dependent on prenatal exposure to testosterone.

Term
What neurotransmitters play a role in sexual behavior?
Definition

Dopamine - involved in sexual motivation for both sexes, critical for performance in males

   (drugs that increase DA increase sexual acitivty.

    DA produces erections, ejaculation, and

    subsequent loss of erection and refractoriness)

 

Serotonin -

---Ejaculation is accompanied by increases in serotonin in the lateral hypothalmus

---contributes to the refractory period

--- Drugs that increase serotonin impair sexual ability in men and women.

Term
Define Language
Definition

The generation and understanding of written, spoken, and gestural communication

Term
Broca's area and Broca's Aphasia
Definition

Broca's area was discovered in 1861 - studied a stroke patient with injury in the frontal area.

 

Often reffered to as nonfluent aphasia

 

Classic Broca: Understand speech, and what they want to say, but cannot SPEAK it -- not really about meaning comprehension, but grammatical comprehension.

 

Symptoms of aphasia:

-Nonfluent speech (one word terms, telegraphic speech)

-Anomia, or trouble finding words

-articulation problems (inflections might be the same, but can't string a sentence together)

-lack of grammatical, or function, words

 

Reading and writing are impaired as much as speech.

 

Comprehension is impaired when the meaning depends on grammatical words

Term
Where is Wernicke's area and what is Wernicke's Aphasia?
Definition

Wernicke's area in the posterior left termporal lobe

 

The aphasia is about language production and meaning comprehension -- grammatical comprehension is ok in that tone, inflection, pauses etc. are ok, but not meaning to the words. THey have a hard time making meaning of what other people say.

 

Trouble understanding spoken and written language

 

Often called "receptive aphasia" but this is misleading because patient has as much trouble producing language as undestanding it.

 

Speech is often fluent, but meaningless--word salad -- Person is often unaware their speech is not making sense.

 

 

Term
What is the Wernicke-Geschwind Model?
Definition

An model to explain how Broca's and Wernicke's interact to produce language

 

Answering a spoken question:

Auditotry cortex --> Wernicke's Area--> Broca's area

- Broca's then communicates with the facial area of the motor cortext to produce speech

 

Reading Outloud:

Visual information transformed into auditory form in the angular gyrus, then:

Angular Gyrus-->Wernicke's Area-->Broca's Area

 

Model is generally accurate, but oversimplified.

Term
What happens if damange to the left hemisphere, causing aphasia, occurs early in life?
Definition

The right hemisphere can usually take over language functions

Term
What happens if damange to the left hemisphere, causing aphasia, happens later in life?
Definition

Language control is more likely to shift into bordering areas of the left hemisphere.

 

The ability for these other areas to take language functions over may be due to their normal participation. Broca's and Werenicke's are huge areas, but they are not the only ones.

Term
Prosody
Definition

Contributed by the right hemisphere to speech

 

It is the use of intonation, emphasis, and rhythm to convey meaning.

Term
What does the right hemisphere contribute to language?
Definition

Prosody - use of intonation, emphasis, and rhythm to convey meaning

 

Important in understanding information from language that is not specifically communicated by the meaning of the words. (Meta communication)

--When meaing must be inferred from an entire discourse

--when the meaning is figurative rather than literal, as in the moral of a story

Term
Alexia and Agraphia
Definition

The inability to read and write

 

probably due to disruption of pathways in the angular gyrus.

 

These pathways connect the visual projection area with the auditory and visual association areas in the temporal and parietal lobes.

Term
Dyslexia
Definition

Impairment of reading

 

Can be acquired through damange, but more often developmental

Term
What are the differences between a healthy brain and one with dyslexia?
Definition

The left planum temporale, where Wernicke's area is located, is USUALLY larger than on the right, but in dyslxics it is larger on the right or equal in size.

 

Neurons in the left planum temporale lack orderly arrangement and some have migrated to the outermost layer

 

The most reliably identifed genes are invovles in neuron gudiance and migration -- which effects neurons getting where they need to go during development.

Term
People with dyslexia have both ____ and ____ difficulties.
Definition

Auditory: Trouble detecting the frequency and amplitude changes that distinguish letter sounds

 

and

 

Visual-perceptual: words are read backward, mirror-image letters, b and d are confused, words appear to move around on the page.

Term
Magnocellular hypothesis of dyslexia
Definition

Dyslexia involves deficience in auditory and visual magnocellular cells.

Term
Phonological hypothesis of Dyslexia
Definition

The major problem is an impairment of phoneme processing -- so sounds embedded in words (PH, EH, DA) Book vs. Cook vs. Look, hard to distinguish the Bo, Co, Lo

 

The deficiet in hearing the spoke word leads to deficits in decoding and encoding words, which leads to struggles writing them later on.

 

fMRI indicates the problem is in an auditory word analysis area, not in the area that recognizes words by their visual form.

Term
A Language Generating Mechanism - Theory of Language
Definition

Language acquisition device (universal to all languages), which is a part of the brain that is dedicated to learning and producing language.

 

Biological mechanisms make language acquisition easy Ex: Speaking and signing children follow the same sequences in learning language

 

The interpretation is that language has co-opted areas specialized for abilities that language requires. (like Broca's or Werenicke's. These are needed to produce language, so acquiring language has become part of their function)

Term
What is the specialization theory of language and what it the evidence that supports it?
Definition

Brain is innately well fitted for creating and learning language

 

Evidence:

-The left hemisphere is dominate for language in 90% of right-handed people and most left-handed

-Broca's is larger and the lateral fissure and planum temporale are longer on the left than on the right

-Even newborns show left-hemisphere response to speech.

-Sign language activates the left hemisphere, even in individuals deaf from birth.

Term
Intelligence
Definition

The ability to reason, to understand, and to profit from experience.

Term
Intelligence Quotient
Definition

The measure of intelligence - how it is expressed

Term
What is the history of intelligence testing?
Definition

Binet was one of the first, verbal and performance IQ. Was focused on children. 

 

1916, Lewis Terman adapted Binet's test for English speaking kids. Developed the Standford Binet

 

100 is the average and always has been. 70 or 2 standard deviations below is the mean associated with learning disabilities or mental "retardation" 2 standard above is for the gifted.

Term
What do intelligence tests measure or predict?
Definition

School performance

Job performance

Income

Socioeconomic Level

Term
It is important for a biological understanding of inteligence to understand what?
Definition

If intelligence is a single capability or a collection of several independent abilities.

Term
Category of Intelligence Theorists: Lumpers
Definition

Claim that intelligence is a single, unitary capability which is usualy called the general factor, or g.

Term
Category of Intelligence Theorists: Splitters
Definition

Intelligence is made up of several mental abilities that are more or less independent of each other

 

Catell - Believed intelligence is too big for just g. Crystalized intelligence, fluid intelligence

 

Gardner - Was purist of splitters. Defines intelligence as a distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to solve problems, and create products. He dismissed idea of g completely.  - 8 different intelligences that have a biological bases :Math, logical, linguistic, music, intrapersonal, interpersonal, kinesthetic, spatial

Term
Ratio of the brain size to the body size
Definition

Is important to biology of intelligence.

 

Ratio for humans is one of the highest

 

ratio for males is slightly higher than females

--womens brains may be more efficient, having a higher ratio of gray to white matter.

--Perhaps males' brains are larger because their spatial ability requires greater capacity

 

Brain size accounts for 11% of the variance in human intelligence.

 

 

Term
General Intelligence correlates with...
Definition

The volume of gray matter, esp. in frontal areas.

The volume of white matter.

 

A thicker cortex

Smaller and more tightly packed processing modules (columns)

Term
Nerve Conduction Velocity
Definition

Contributes to improved processing efficiency

 

IQ scores are correlated with reaction time and nerve conduction velocity

Term
How is efficiency made possible in the brain?
Definition

Enhanced Myelination

Faster transfer from a limited STM to a LT storage

Use of less energy while engaging in tasks.

Term
What are the three clusters of specific abilities related to intelligence?
Definition

Linguistic

Logical-Mathematical

Spatial

 

--suggests our brains are not ony hardwired for language. but math and spatial abilities as well.

Term
Biology of Linguistic Intelligence
Definition

Language - Left frontal and temporal lobes

Term
Biology of Spatial Intelligence
Definition

Depends on the right parietal lobe structures

Term
Biology of Logical-Mathematical intelligence
Definition

Mathmatical performance engages in two areas:

 

Calcuations and arithmetic facts involve the left frontal area

 

Estimation and use of visual-spatial representation involve the parietal lobes

 

Both areas, in many math tasks, are usually active.

Term

Intelligence has a heritability of _____ and concordance rates _____ with genetic similarity.

Definition

50%

 

Increase

 

This is only for intelligence as measured by an IQ test. Got to accept that IQ test IS what defines intelligence.

Term
What individual functions of intelligence are heritable?
Definition

Working Memory

Processing Speed

Choice Reaction time

Term
What neural components of intelligence are heritable?
Definition

Brain Volume (90% heritable)

White Matter (88% heritable)

Gray matter (82% heritable)

Term
What genes are implicated in intelligence?
Definition

APSP Gene - major determinant of brain size

 

PACAP precursor gene - plays a role in neural signaling and neurogenesis.

 

at least 150 candidate genes.

Term
What are some of the environmental influences of intelligence?
Definition

IQ correlated 1.76 with the incidence of infectious disease??

 

SES - children adopted from impoverished homes into middle class homes increase as much as 16 IQ points.

 

Still, children's IQs are more highly correlated with IQ of biological parents than adoptive parents and this increases over time.

Term
Why has the decline of intelligence with age been overestimated?
Definition

Perhaps not as motivated to perform tasks such as memorizing words.

 

When tested on content that was meaningful to them (television shows and conversations) decline was moderate

 

Confounding results with the Flynn effect - 35 year longitudinal study showed less decline.

 

 

Term
What is aspects of intelligence are declining with age?
Definition

Performance loss is usually related to reduced speed, and processing speed acounts for 99% of age-related differences in working memory

 

loss of coordination in default mode network--represents preparedness for action

 

Term
How can aging losses of intelligence be minimized?
Definition

Through practice, diet, improved self-esteem, and possibly increased GABA

 

Those who maintain performance recruit additional brain areas during tasks

 

Neuroplasticity - novel environment exposure will stimulate synaptic growth.

Term
Intellectual Disability
Definition

Limitation in intelletual functioning and in adaptive behavior originating before the age of 18.

Term
DSM V changes to disability?
Definition

Trying to be uniformly defined as having non-adaptive behavior or struggles in

 

Conceptual skills - communication, time, money

Social Skills - social responsiblity, capacity to form relationships with other people

Practical skills - daily living skills, work, and travel.

 

1-3% of u. s. population considered intellectually disabled.

--45% of those find it impossible to determine the cause or if it was genetic.

Term
What are the criteria of an intellectual disability?
Definition

IQ below 70

Difficulty meeting routine needs like self-care

 

Term
What are causes of intellectual disabilities?
Definition

Combination of genetic and environmental

 

Environmental = disease during infancy, prenatal exposure to viruses, and maternal alcoholism.

Term
Mild Intellectual Disability
Definition

IQ 50-70

85%

 

Can graudate, able to hold jobs, have families

May require extra level of support especially during stressful circumstances, but it is within their capabilities.

 

More people with mild come from Racial minorities and lower SES

Term
Moderate Intellectual Disability
Definition

IQ 35-49

10% of population of intellectual disabilities

 

Typically diagnosed in preschool years and usually show organic cause for their delay.

 

Can achieve to 2nd or 3rd grade level.

 

With consistent support they can hold jobs and function in the community.

 

Many people with downs and Fragile X fall into this category.

 

Term
Severe Intellectual Disability
Definition

IQ 20-34

4% of population

 

Cognitive, Motor, and Ambulatory problems and poor communication.

 

Usually require specialized cared throughout their whole lives.

Term
Profound Intellectual Disability
Definition

IQ Below 20

1%

 

Significant deficits in motor, cognitive, communication, eating, etc. 

 

Require significant support to functioning.

Term
Anterograde amnesia
Definition

Ability to form new memories after damage to the hippocampus or impaired hippocampal formation.

Term
Retrograde Amnesia
Definition

Memories of the past are lost - usually right before a traumatic surgery/event.

 

Term
Consolidation
Definition

Involves short-term memory, long term memory, and long-lasting memory

 

During consolidation, the brain forms a more or less permanent physical representation of a memory.

Term
What is the process of memory storage in the brain?
Definition

Brain stores information temporarily in the hippocampal formation

 

Over time, memory is progressively transferred to cortical areas - usually stored where the information they are based on was processed.

 

Memories are nto stored in a single area, nor is each memory distributed throughout the brain

 

Ex: verbal memories are stored in the left frontal lobe, Memories sounds activate auditory areas, spatial memories in parietal lobe.

 

Term
Memory Retrieval
Definition

Retrieval is the process of accessing stored memories

 

Glutamate is required (for consolidation as well)

--Blocking glutamate receptors for 7 days following learning prevents memory from being consolidated.

--Blocking them during testing interferes with retrieval.

 

Prefrontal area is believed to direct the search strategy required for retrieval.

Term
Declarative Memory
Definition

Involves learning that results in memories of facts, people, and events, which a person can verbalize.

 

 

HM would improve in tasks over time, but couldn't remember having every done the task -- Declaritive Memory

Term
Nondeclarative Memory
Definition

Memories for behaviors.

 

Result from procedural (skill) learning, emotional learning, and stimulus-response condititiong.

Term
What are the subtypes of declarative memory?
Definition

Subtypes:

Episodic - Memory for events (factual)

Autobiographical - Info about yourself

Spatial - Location of individual and objects in space.

 

Term
What areas of the brain are involved in declarative memory?
Definition

Hippocampi

Amygdala - strengths declarative memories about emotional events.

 

Memory for both pleasant and aversive stimuli is related to the amount of activity in the amygdala while viewing material.

Term
What areas of the brain are related to non declarative memory?
Definition

THe amygdala - emotional learning

 

could explain why a person might have an emotional response resulting from an unremembered experience.

Term
Working Memory
Definition

Provides a temporary "register" for information while it is being used.

 

The Brain and WM:

-Cells in prefrontal cortex continue to fire during a delay, even in spite of a distracting stimulus, thus assisting working memory.

 

-Prefrontal cortex acts as a working memory central executive

----manages behavioral strategies and decision making

----directs the neural traffic in WM

-----Coordinates activity involved in perception and response.

Term
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
Definition

The increase in synaptic strength that occurs when presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons are both activated.

 

Lasts for hours in tissue culture and months in lab animals.

 

Mostly in the hippocampus, but appears characteristic of much of neural tissue.

Term
Long-Term Depression
Definition

decrease in strength of synapses that occurs when stimulation of presynaptic neurons is insufficient to activate postsynaptic cells.

--The way the brain modifies or clears memories to make room for new information

 

Trains of low frequency stimulation produce LTD

Term
Associative LTP
Definition

occurs when a weak synapse and a strong synapse on the same postsynaptic neuron are active simultaneously, resulting in strengthing of the weak synapse

 

Think of classical conditioning. Weak stimulus (weak neuron) with a strong stimulus (Strong neuron) soon, the weak stimulus/neuron becomes strong.

Term
What kind of wave activity usually triggers LTP and LTD in the brain?
Definition

Theta activity (4 to 7 hz)

 

Theta activity occurs in the hippocampus during novel situations

 

Peaks of theta waves produces LTP

 

Troughts of theta waves suppresses LTP

Term
What is the process for LTP to happen?
Definition

Glutamate activates AMPA receptors, but NMDA receptors are bocked by magnesium ions.

 

First few pulses of stimulution partially depolarize the membrane and dislodge the magnesium ions.

 

Further stimulation activates NMDA receptor, depolarizing the membrane.

 

Calcium influx activates CaMKII, an enzyme required for strengthing the synapse.

Term
What is LTP induction followed by and what does it affect?
Definition

LTP induction is followed by gene activation and silencing, which affects the synthesis of protiens

 

Gene activation, Siliencing, and synthesis of protiens al result in functional changes in the synapse and the growth of new connections.

Term
What are some structural changes as a result of LTP?
Definition

Increased numbers of dendritic spines

 

Enlargement or splitting of existing spines

 

transport of additional AMPA receptors into the spines further increases postsynaptic strength.

 

Dopamine release unmasks previously silent synapses and initiates growth of new synapses.

 

Neurogenesis increases in the hippocampus.  -- new neurons are more likely to participate in learning.

Term
Extinction
Definition

Eliminates useless memories.

 

Involves new learing.

 

requires activation of NMDA receptors

 

Forgetting is an active biological process which appears to be adaptive.-- May precent the saturation of synapses.

Term
Reconsolidation
Definition

when retrieved, it must be reconsolidated.

 

During that time, electroshock and drugs that interfere with protein synthesis can disrupt the memory.

 

Also a chance to refine and correct errors in memories.

 

Can also result in recall of false memories.

Term
What are some structural deficits that do occur during aging in relation to memory and learning?
Definition

Loss of synapses and NMDA in hippocampal circuits -- leads to LTP impairment and slower learning.

 

Myelin loss

 

Substantial cell loss in basal forebrain region (in monkeys)

 

Prefrontal deficits, which interfere with learning.

Term
What are the two notable characteristics of Alzheimer's brain?
Definition

Plaques - clumps of amyloid (protein) that cluster among axon terminals and interfere with neural transmission

 

Neurofibrillary tangles - Abnormal acumulations of the protein tau inside neurons.

--Tangles are associated with the death of brain cells.

Term
Where is cell loss greatest in Alzheimers?
Definition

Temporal and frontal lobes

 

Gyri are reudced in size, sulci and ventricles are enlarged

 

Hippocampus is effectively isolated from the rest of the brain.

Term
What are the approaches to treating Alzheimers? And how do they work?
Definition

Drugs:

3 Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors

1 Memantine - moderate to severe symptoms

 

They limit neurons' sensitivity to glutamate (Excess glutamate kills cells by excitotoxicity)

 

Induce an immune response to amyloid

--Injecting amyloid clears plaques but did not affect cognition

--Injecting immunoglobulin removed plagues and produced mental improvement.

 

Implant genes for nerve growth factor -- increased brain metabolism and reduced cog. loss by 84%

 

 

--

 

Term
What are the genes invovled in Alzheimers?
Definition

App - Amyloid precursor protein

 

Chromosome 21 - because individuals with Downs have plaques and tangles.

 

ApoE4 about 50% of cases -- late onset (over 60)

Term
How do we diagnose Alzheimers?
Definition

Batteries of physical, neurological, and cognitive tests.

 

Brain scans -- PET scans detect plaques

 

Markers in skin, blood, and Cerebrospinal fluid can diagnoise 5-6 years in advance with 90-100% accuracy.

Term
Korsakoff's Syndrome
Definition

Another form of demetia with brain deteroriation almost always caused by chronic alcholoism

 

Results from a thiamine deficiency (alcohol consumes it and reduces absorbtion in the stomach)

 

Most profound symptom is anterograde amnesia, but can have severe retrograde amnesia as well.

 

Usually amnesia for declarative memories, nondeclarative memory remains in tact.

Term
What is the damage to the brain in Korsakoff's syndrome?
Definition

Size reductions in the mammillary bodies and the medial thalamus

 

Structural and functional abnormalities in the frontal lobes.

 

Thiamine therapy can relieve the symptoms somewhat, but damage is irreversible.

Term
Confabulation
Definition

Fabricate stories and facts to make up for thos missing their memories.

 

depends on abnormal activity in the frontal lobes -- usually have lesions there

 

They have more trouble than nonconfabulating patients in suppressing irrelevant information they have learned earlier

 

May be due to an inability to distinguish between current reality and earlier memories.

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