a stain (used in compound light microscopy) that is attracted to negatively charged molecules.

This lets it be used as a stain to visualize DNA and RNA in a cell.

a biological tool that irradiates cells for a bit; then after the radioactive compound decays, it is possible to visualize cellular systems.

- if you label amino acids you can see protein synthesis

- you can do the same sort of thing for DNA/RNA synethesis

the mitochondria will be at the top - they are low density

the ribosomes will be at the bottom - they are high density

lysosomes will be at the top - they are low density

1. bacteria

2. archaea

- cell wall filled with cytosol

- no nuclear-enclosed organelles

- ribosomes

- nucleoid (no nucleus)

- plasmids

- sometimes flagella

1. small nonpolar - diffuse freely

2. large nonpolar - facilitated diffusion (uses carrier proteins)

3. polar/ionic - can't get through without expending energy

Phosphate heads: proteins - these contribute to signalling and channeling

Lipid tails: cholesterol - these contribute to the fluidity of the cell

cell adhesion molecules

these guys contribute to cell recognition/adhesion

1. Break down foreign materials ingested by the cell (fuse with endocytotic vesicles)

2. Break down old cellular componants and releasing the building blocks back into the cell for reuse.

3. Autolysis

Membrane-bound organelles that are "containers" for metabolic reactions.

- peroxisomes

- glyoxysomes

These are both microbodies - "containers" for metabolic reactions.

Peroxisomes:

- contain oxidative enzymes; produce hydrogen peroxide

- break down fats into smaller fats (for fuel)

- in the liver, detox

Glyoxysomes:

- found in fat tissue of germinating seedlings

- converts fats to sugars until the plant is mature enough to use photosynthesis

- contain own DNA (circular)

- contain own ribosomes

- produce some of their own proteins

- reproduce using binary fission

What cellular structures are made of microtubules? (3)

1. oxygen-CO₂ exchange in lungs and tissues

2. urine formation in the kidneys

3. depolarization of neurons and conduction of the action potential

4. proton gradient in mitochondria

5. exchange of materials between the maternal and fetal blood across the placenta.

What are the terms for...

1. When a cell has more solute concentration that the environment outside it?

2. When it has less solute concentration?

3. When the solute concentrations are equal?

1. Hypotonic (swollen cell)

2. Hypertonic (shrivelled cell)

3. Isotonic

Passive transport; requires carrier proteins, but no energy. This is the transport method of large molecules, like glucose. Moves DOWN the concentration gradient.

1. Phagocytosis - when the cell ingests large particles.

2. Pinocytosis - when the cell ingests small particles or fluids.

Either may happen with the particles first binding to receptors on the cell membrane.

1. Epithelial

2. Connective

3. Nervous

4. Muscle

connective

What are the three kinds of muscle tissue?

bacteriophage

apoenzyme: an enzyme without the require cofactor.

holoenzyme: an enezyme with the required cofactor.

pepsin: operates in the stomach at pH = 2

pancreatic enzymes: operate in the small intestine at pH = 8.5

allosteric enzyme

- have regulatory sites apart from their active sites

- often have quartenary structure

1. stabilize it in its active or inactive state

2. change its affinity for its substrate

an enzyme that's secreted in its inactive form.

- pepsinogen

- trypsinogen

- chymotrypsinogen

anabolic: require energy; ex: biosynthesis

catabolic: produce energy

autotrophic: get energy from sunlight

heterotrophic: get energy catabolially

1. adenine

2. ribose

3. phosphate

- uses 2ATP

- produces 4ATP

therefore, net 2ATP from each molecule of glucose

what happens at the end of glycolysis in an anaerobic environment - in yeast and some bacteria

- pyruvate is decarboxylated

- you get CO₂ and acetaldehyde and ethanol

- most importantly, NADH is oxidized back to NAD+, which you can then use to go through glycolysis again

1. glycolysis

2. pyruvate decarboxylation

3. Krebs cycle

4. electron transport chain

from glycolysis: 2 ATP, 2 NADH

from pyruvate decarboxylation: 2 NADH

each turn:

1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂

therefore, with two turns, you get 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2

cytochromes

- resemble hemoglobin in their active sites

- central ion atom

- can undergo reversible redox reaction

FMN - flavin mononucleotide

cytochrome a3

cyanide keeps cytochrome a3 from giving electrons to oxygen

dinitrophenol decouples ATP production from the proton gradient

1. carbohydrates

2. fats

3. proteins

in adipose tissue (as triacylglycerides)

- glycerol: turns into PGAL, which is a glycolytic intermediate

- fatty acids: activated in the cytoplasm (by 2 ATP), then beta-oxidized in the mitochondria. You get a bunch of 2-carbon fragments which are turned into acetyl-CoA (and NADH and FADH for each fragment)

1. cell division

2. asexual reproduction

3. sexual reproduction

unicellular: cell division is reproduction

multicellular: cell division is for growth, development, and cell replacement

prokaryotes: binary fission

- DNA attaches to plasma membrane and duplicates; cell grows; cell splits.

eukaryotes: you also have to replicate the organelles and make the right amount of chromosomes; eukaryotic cells differentiate between diploid and haploid cells

2N = 46 (somatic/autosomal)

N = 23 (sex cells)

G1: (presynthetic gape) cell doubles in size; organelles are made; centrioles made; there is a restriction point here.

S: (synthesis) each chromosome is replicated (sister chromatids)

G2: (postsynthetic gap) cell keeps growing and making organelles

- double the DNA (S phase makes sister chromatids out of every chromosome)

- same number of chromosomes (the new chromatids count as part of the original chromosomes)

- chromatin

- granular; not yet condensed chromasomes

- chromosomes condense (no longer chromatin)

- centrioles seperate and go to opposite ends of the cell

- spindle apparatus appears

- nuclear membrane dissolves

- nucleolus disappears

- chromosomal centromeres get kinetochores

- spindle apparatus disappears

- nuclear membrane reforms

- nucleolus reappears

- cytokinesis

- binary fission

(cell splitting in prokaryotes)

- budding

(unequal cytokinesis - one daughter cell is much smaller than the other.)

- regeneration

(regrowth of a lost or hurt body part, like in starfish. this works by mitosis.)

- parthenogenesis

(unfertilized egg grows into adult, without any male input.)

path of human sperm

seminiferous tubules

epididymous

vas deferens

ejaculatory tract

urethra

penis

in the testes

secrete testosterone and other andogens

1. seminal vesicles

2. prostate gland

3. bulbourethral glands

1. spermatogonia (2N)

2. primary spermatocytes (2N)

3. secondary spermatocytes (N)

4. spermatids (N)

5. spermatozoa (N)

primary oocyte (2N) undergoes the first stage of meiosis to become a secondary oocyte (N). It is then expelled from the follicle during ovulation.

- a smaller, inviable polar body is also produced

surrounded by two laters.

inner: zona pellucida

outer: corona radiate

- meiosis II happens

- cortical reaction - the ovum releases calcium ions into the cytoplasm, forming a fertilization membrane surrounding the ovum cell

- metabolic rate stimulated

monozygotic (identical twins) - one zygote splits into two embryos

dizygotic (fraternal twins) - two ova are released in one ovarian cycle and both are fertilized

indeterminate cleavage: this is a cleavage where each half of the split cell mass could develop into an embryo on its own. This is how you get identical twins.

determinate cleavage: this is early cellular specialization in an embryo.

blastocyst is the mammalian name for the blastula, which is the morula hollowed out, surrounding a hollow fluid-filled pocket called the blastocoel.

Has two cell groups:

- inner cell mass (extends into the blastocoel)

- trophoblasts (surrounds the blastocoel)

1. ectoderm: nervous system, skin, epithelial lining of nose/mouth/anus

2. mesoderm: connective tissue, musculoskeletal system, circulatory system, gonads

3. endoderm: epithelial lining of digestive system and respiratory tracts; organs of digestive system

1. mesoderm forms notochord

2. has inductive effect on ectoderm

3. which flattens and encloses it

4. later becoming the brain and spinal cord (nervous system)

name the four fetal membranes and what they do

1. amnion

- contains amniotic fluid; acts as a shock absorber

2. chorion

- surrounds amnion; forms the placenta; sticks chorionic villi into the uterine wall, which become the placenta

3. allantois

- becomes umbilical vessels; enveloped by amnion to become umbilical cord

4. yolk sac

- blood vessels develop here

1. nutrition

2. respiration
3. waste disposal

blood from the placenta --> umbilical vein --> ductus venosus (liver shunt) --> inferior vena cava --> right atrium* --> foramen ovale (pulmonary artery shunt) --> left atrium --> umbilical arteries --> placenta

[*any blood that doesn't go through the foramen ovale --> right ventricle --> pulmonary artery --> ductus arteriosus* (lungs shunt) --> aorta] --> umbilical arteries --> placenta

[*any blood that gets away from the ductus arteriosus --> lungs --> pulmonary vein --> left atrium]

1. cervix thins and dilates; amniotic sac ruptures; minor contractions

2. rapid contractions, birth, uterus expells placenta and umbilical cord

axial: head, trunk bones

appendicial: limbs, pelvis

componant of compact bone

- made of proteins; calcium, phosphate, hydroxite