Term
| What are the four types of primary animal tissues? |
|
Definition
| Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nerve |
|
|
Term
| What is the germ layer that evolved into the epidermis, lining of oral cavity, nervous system tissue? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What did the mesoderm evolve into? |
|
Definition
| All connective and muscle tissues |
|
|
Term
| What embryonic germ layer evolved into the lining epithelium of the GI tract, liver, pancreas, gall bladder, lining epithelium of respiratory system? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name the function and structure of epithelial tissue |
|
Definition
| Covers surfaces, lines spaces, forms glands. Protects underlying tissues, absorbs and secretes substances. |
|
|
Term
| What are the two types of epithelial tissue? What are their subtypes? |
|
Definition
Simple epithelia: one layer resting on basement membrane. Squamous, cuboidal, columnar.
Stratified: more than one layer resting on basement membrane |
|
|
Term
| What does squamous epithelia do? |
|
Definition
| Protects tissue of blood vessel wall |
|
|
Term
| What does simple cuboidal epithelium? |
|
Definition
| Absorb substances from the fluid and secrete other substances into the fluid as the fluid becomes urine. Lines kidney tubule |
|
|
Term
| What does simple columnar epithelium do? |
|
Definition
| Lines the stomach. Secretes mucus that forms a film on the surface of the cells. Protects the stomach wall from the acidic contents of the stomach lumen. |
|
|
Term
| What's different about the epithelium of the intestine? |
|
Definition
| Simple columnar; specialized for absorption of nutrients from the intestine. Features absorptive cells that have a brush border, and goblet cells that secrete mucus. |
|
|
Term
| What is the most commn type of stratified epithelium and what does it do? |
|
Definition
| Squamous! It's designed to withstand abrasive stresses. Some examples of it are the lining of the esophagous and the epidermis of the skin. |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the connective tissue? |
|
Definition
| To provide mechanical support for other tissues, and fin other tissues together to form organs |
|
|
Term
| Describe the structure of connective tissue and its composition. |
|
Definition
| Consists of an extracellular matrix which is made of collagen fibers embedded in a ground substance made of carbs and proteins. |
|
|
Term
| What cells are responsible for synthesizing the matrix? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the two skeletal connective tissues? What are their cells called? |
|
Definition
| Cartilage and bones. Cartilage-chondrocytes. Bones-osteocytes |
|
|
Term
| What does muscle tissue do? What are the two types of muscle tissue? |
|
Definition
| Striated muscle and nonstriated |
|
|
Term
| What does skeletal muscle do? Describe its structure and shape |
|
Definition
| Striated; long and cylindrical but not branched. Multinucleated. Moves the skeleton |
|
|
Term
| Describe the structure, function, and shape of cardiac muscle |
|
Definition
| Striated; short, cylindrical and not branched, single nucleus |
|
|
Term
| Describe the shape, structure, and function of smooth muscle |
|
Definition
| Nonstriated; short, spindle shaped, single nucleus |
|
|
Term
| What are the types and functions of nerve tissue? |
|
Definition
| Conduction of nerve impulses for the purpose of communication. Nerve cells (neurons) that produce/conduct nerve impulses. Neuroglial cells physically and nutritionally support neurons. |
|
|
Term
| What does epithelial tissue do? |
|
Definition
| Forms glands, covers surfaces lines spaces |
|
|
Term
| What does connective tissue do? |
|
Definition
| Provides mechanical support for other tissues, glue that holds tissues together in organs, passively translates mechanical force from muscle to bone |
|
|
Term
| What does muscle tissue do? |
|
Definition
| Actively produces mechanical force through contraction |
|
|
Term
| What does nerve tissue do? |
|
Definition
| Conducts nerve impulses as a way of communicating |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The process of maintaining the internal environment of the body in a stable, constant condition |
|
|
Term
| What are some of the physical variables that homeostasis maintains? |
|
Definition
| pH, concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide, concentration of electrolytes, concentration of organic nutrients and wastes, blood volume and pressure, temperature |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The normal value of the variable that must be maintained |
|
|
Term
| Describe a negative feedback loop |
|
Definition
| A mechanism through which a change in a physiological variable in reversed or returned to normal |
|
|
Term
| What are the components of a feedback loop? |
|
Definition
| Sensor, Control center, Effector |
|
|
Term
| Describe a feedback loop using the analogy of the temperature of one's home |
|
Definition
Sensor: thermometer
Control Center: thermostat
Effector: heater/air conditioner |
|
|
Term
| What are the two systems used to maintain homeostasis? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the nervous system? |
|
Definition
| Provide the sensor, communication, and control centers needed by homeostatic mechanisms for purpose of regulating internal environment |
|
|
Term
| What are the components of the nervous system? |
|
Definition
| Sensory receptors, control center that integrates sensory info and generates response to effectors, communication of sensory and response info (peripheral nerves) |
|
|
Term
| Describe the evolution of the nervous system |
|
Definition
| Cnidarians had a nerve net; platyhelminthes had two simple solid nerve ventral cords, Annelids demonstrated segmented solid ventral nerve cords, and primitive brains |
|
|
Term
| Describe the chordate nervous system |
|
Definition
| Possess dorsal hollow nerve cord that develops into a hollow brain and hollow spinal cord |
|
|
Term
| What are the two divisions of the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system? |
|
Definition
| Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system |
|
|
Term
| Describe the central nervous system |
|
Definition
| Brain and spinal cord: serves as the control center, receives sensory info, integrates/interprets the sensory info and then produces coordinated motor response |
|
|
Term
| Describe the peripheral nervous system |
|
Definition
| Sensory receptors and peripheral nerves; senses and conducts the sensory info and motor response between CNS and somatic and visceral organs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cells that produce and conduct nerve impulses; principle cells of nerve tissues |
|
|
Term
| Describe a neuron's structure |
|
Definition
| Cell body (nucleus, ER, Golgi apparatus); Cytoplasmic processes: dendrites, functional extensions of cell body; Axon: single, long process that conducts a nerve impulse; branches terminate to form synapses with other cells |
|
|
Term
| What are the four zones of a neuron? |
|
Definition
| Input zone: receives stimulation from other neurons; trigger zone: a nerve impulse is triggered; conducting zone: nerve impulse is conducted; output zone: a nerve impulse is sent out |
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of neurons? |
|
Definition
| Sensory, interneurons, motor neurons |
|
|
Term
| What do sensory neurons do? |
|
Definition
| Conduct sensory impulses to neurons within CNS; called afferent neurons, found in peripheral nerves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Found in brain and spinal cord, conduct nerve impulses within CNS, responsible for "integration" in CNS |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| conduct motor impulses away from CNS to "effector" organs; called efferent neurons; found in peripheral nerves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Potential or a separation of charge: exists across plasma membrane of neuron. It is called resting membrane potential |
|
|
Term
| What significance does this information have: the resting membrane potential of the average neuron is -70 mv? |
|
Definition
| The inside of the cell is negatively charged; and the outside is positively charged |
|
|
Term
| What is the resting membrane potential created by? |
|
Definition
| The unequal distribution of ions across a plasma membrane (Sodium and Potassium) |
|
|
Term
| Where are potassium and sodium ions in reference to a neuron? |
|
Definition
| Sodium ions are in high concentrations outside the cell. Potassium ions are concentrated inside cell. |
|
|
Term
| What is a nerve impulse called and what does it do? |
|
Definition
| Action potential abruptly changes membrane potential of neuron or muscle cell. It reverses from resting membrance potential to +40 then quickly returns to rest |
|
|
Term
| Where is action potential initiated? |
|
Definition
| The trigger zone; the membrane potential is lowered to threshold potential (depolarized) |
|
|
Term
| What is the input zone of a neuron covered in? |
|
Definition
| A lot of synapses from other neurons |
|
|
Term
| What happens when action potentials from neurons excite the membrane? |
|
Definition
| Membrane potential is lowered (depolarized) |
|
|
Term
| What happens when action potentials from other neurons inhibit the membrane? |
|
Definition
| A slight hyperpolarization or an increase in the membrane potential |
|
|
Term
| Define membrane potential |
|
Definition
| The difference in charge across the plasma membrane at any moment in time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an increase in membrane potential |
|
|
Term
| What happens at the input zone of a neuron? |
|
Definition
| Excitatory impulses/inhibitory impulses are summed |
|
|
Term
| What is required for an action potential to be triggered? |
|
Definition
| The sum of the impulses at the input zone must be about 15 mv. |
|
|
Term
| Why does depolarization happen? |
|
Definition
| Rapid inward current of sodium ions. The sodium ion current is inward because of the direction of the sodium concentration gradient |
|
|
Term
| Why is the concentration gradient of sodium ions in a neuron's membrane made possible? |
|
Definition
| The sudden opening of membrane proteins called voltage regulated sodium ion channels. |
|
|
Term
| What are voltage regulated sodium ion channels? |
|
Definition
| Proteins embedded in plasma membrane of neurons that have molecular gates that open and close. |
|
|
Term
| When are voltage regulated sodium ion gates opened? |
|
Definition
| When the membrane potential hits threshold at the trigger zone they open for a millisecond. Sodium ions flow into cell and cause depolarization |
|
|
Term
| Why does repolarization happen? |
|
Definition
| A rapid outward current of potassium ions. This happens because voltage-regulated potassium ion channels open. |
|
|
Term
| What is the all or none law? |
|
Definition
| An action potential will completely and maximally form if the sum of the stimuli at the input zone is strong enough to reach the action potential. It will not form if the sum of the stimuli is not strng enough to reach the threshold potential. |
|
|
Term
| What direction is the action potential conducted in? |
|
Definition
| Along the conduction region of the neuron along the axon terminals. |
|
|
Term
| What is conduction of action potential increased by? |
|
Definition
| The myelin fatty sheath around the axon of neurons. |
|
|
Term
| What is the myelin sheath around neurons made from? |
|
Definition
| The plasma membrane of Schwann Cells |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the myelin sheath? |
|
Definition
| To electrically insulate most of the surface of the axon |
|
|
Term
| What are the spaces between Schwann cells? What do Schwann cells make up? |
|
Definition
| Schwann cells make up the myelin sheath around an axon and the spaces between them are called Nodes of Ranvier. |
|
|
Term
| What conducts action potentials between axons? How does it do this and what is the result? |
|
Definition
| Saltatory conduction makes the action potentials jump from node to node and greatly increases the conduction velocity of the axon. |
|
|
Term
| How are action potentials transmitted from cell to cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the categories of chemical synapses? |
|
Definition
| Junctions: interneuronal(between two neurons in CNS), neuromuscular (between neuron and muscle cell), neuroglandular (between neuron and glandular) |
|
|
Term
| How is the peripheral nervous system divided up? |
|
Definition
| Somatic; stimulates somatic organs: autonomic; stimulates visceral organs |
|
|
Term
| How is the autonomic nervous system divided up? |
|
Definition
| Sympathetic, parasympathetic, enteric |
|
|
Term
| What are most nerves a mix of? |
|
Definition
| Motor and sensory neurons; called mixed peripheral nerves |
|
|
Term
| What emanates from each of the 31 segments of the spinal cord? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What do spinal nerves split into? |
|
Definition
| Nerve roots: the dorsal root (sensory axons) and ventral roots (motor axons) |
|
|
Term
| Where are sensory neuron axons' cell bodies located? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Chemical signals that regulate the activity of the various tissues and organs; distributed by the blood stream and controls activities of other tissues |
|
|
Term
| What is the source of hormones? |
|
Definition
| An endocrine gland is the gland that secretes substances into blood stream |
|
|
Term
| What is the conduit for hormones? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the receptors for hormones? |
|
Definition
| Tissues that respond to a particular hormone; receptors bind to hormones to produce response from tissue |
|
|
Term
| Name some endocrine glands |
|
Definition
| pituitary, hypothalamus, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, testes, ovaries |
|
|
Term
| What are the two types of hormones? |
|
Definition
| Hydrophobic and hydrophilic |
|
|
Term
| What are the characteristics of hydrophobic hormones? |
|
Definition
| Water-hating; can penetrate plasma membrane of cell; receptors are inside cell |
|
|
Term
| What are the characteristics of hydrophilic hormones? |
|
Definition
| water-loving; cannot penetrate into plasma membrane; receptors are on cell surface |
|
|
Term
| What composes hydrophobic hormones? |
|
Definition
| Steroids; estradiol, progesterone, testosterone |
|
|
Term
| What composes hydrophilic hormones? |
|
Definition
| Proteins: growth hormone, insulin, follicle stimulating; Peptide: glucagon, antidiuretic, parathyroid; amino acid derivatives: epinephrine |
|
|
Term
| How do hydrophobic steroids work? |
|
Definition
| Hormone diffuses out of blood and penetrates plasma membrane. It binds to intracellular receptor and forms hormone-receptor complex. It enters the nucleus and binds to a specific set of genes. Then it triggers transcription. mRNA is used to synthesize specific proteins |
|
|
Term
| How do hydrophilic hormones work? |
|
Definition
| They do not penetrate plasma membrane. The hormones bind with cell-surface receptors to form hormone-receptor complexes. These initiate a signal transduction pathway made of relay molecules called second messengers. This causes a cellular response. |
|
|
Term
| What is an important second messenger and what does it do? |
|
Definition
| cyclic AMP (cAMP) and it activates other relay molecules in the signal transduction pathway of hydrophilic molecules |
|
|
Term
| What is the pituitary gland made up of? |
|
Definition
| Anterior lobe and posterior lobe |
|
|
Term
| Describe the anterior pituitary gland |
|
Definition
| The master gland; synthesizes 6 hormones: ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH, prolactin, growth hormone |
|
|
Term
| What is the hypothalamus' role in the anterior pituitary? |
|
Definition
| contains heurons whose cell bodies are in the hypothalamus and axons in the stalk |
|
|
Term
| What is the portal system? |
|
Definition
| Blood circulates through a capillary bed in the stalk, another capillary bed in the anterior pituitary, and then goes back to the heart |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Neurosecretory cells (neurons) secrete releasing factors into stalk. They are picked up by portal capillaries in the stalk and carried to the portal capillaries in the anterior pituitary. These diffuse out of the capillaries in the anterior pituitary and bind to glandular cells. These are activated or inhibited, increasing or decreasing secretion of hormones to general circulation. |
|
|
Term
| What does the thyroid gland do? |
|
Definition
| synthesizes and secretes thyroxine which stimulates metabolism of all tissues |
|
|
Term
| How does the anterior pituitary affect the thyroid gland? |
|
Definition
| Neurons in hypothalamus release trh into stalk portal system. TRH stimulates release of TSH from anterior pituitary into general circulation. TSH stimulates release of thyroxine into general circulation. Negative feedback loops control these. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| stimulates metabolism of all tissues |
|
|
Term
| Describe the posterior pituitary |
|
Definition
| Contains neurons that synthesize/secrete two hormones (ADH stimulates kidneys, oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions). Cell bodies in hypothalamus, axons in posterior pituitary. NO PORTAL SYSTEM |
|
|
Term
| How does the posterior pituitary system work? |
|
Definition
| Neurons synthesize ADH or oxytocin. It moves downwards inside the axons and accumulates in the terminals. Action potentials release hormones which enter capillaries in posterior lobe. The blood vessels carry these into general circulation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Endocrine and exocrine. Produces hormones such as insulin and glucagon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| It is a peptide hormone secreted from beta cells of the pancreas. Increases uptake of glucose from blood into adipose and skeletal tissue. DECREASES BLOOD SUGAR CONC. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Peptide hormone secreted from alpha cells of pancreas: increases release of glucose from liver. INCREASES BLOOD SUGAR CONC. |
|
|
Term
| Name three functions of skeletal system |
|
Definition
| Support, movement, protection |
|
|
Term
| What are two physiological/chemical functions of a skeleton? |
|
Definition
| Red bone marrow forms blood cells. Bone calcium maintains blood calcium concentration |
|
|
Term
| What is the main bone shaft called? |
|
Definition
| Diaphysis: marrow cavity; filled with fatty yellow bone marrow |
|
|
Term
| What are the dilated ends of a bone called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the bone covered in? |
|
Definition
| Specialized connective tissue capsule called perisoteum |
|
|
Term
| What are articulating surfaces covered in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the two varieties of bone? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Forms walls of diaphysis; very dense |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Honeycomb of meshwork of boney trabeculae; fills epiphyses |
|
|
Term
| What are the structural units of compact bone called? |
|
Definition
| Haversian systems/osteons (bony cylinders) |
|
|
Term
| What is the calcified matrix of bone made of? Organic material and inorganic? |
|
Definition
| Mostly collagen and calcium-phosphorous crystal. |
|
|
Term
| What is trapped in hydroxyapatite? |
|
Definition
| Osteocyte: cannot grow or divide |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Lack of adequate mineralization of matrix; lack of Vitamin C, Calcium, and Phosphorous |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Reduction in bone matrix mass |
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of joints? |
|
Definition
| Fixed, cartilagenous, synovial |
|
|
Term
| Give an example of each type of joint |
|
Definition
| Fixed: skull sutures, cartilagenous: vertebrae disks, synovial: knee |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lined by cartilage and synovial membrane; filled with synovial fluid |
|
|
Term
| What are ligaments and what do they do? |
|
Definition
| Type of synocial joint: hold together bones of movable joints, strong bands of dense connective tissue |
|
|
Term
| Name types of synovial joints |
|
Definition
| ball and socket, hinge, pivot |
|
|
Term
| What is muscle tissue designed to do? |
|
Definition
| Produce mechanical force for movement |
|
|
Term
| What is mechanical force created by? |
|
Definition
| Muscle contraction: molecular process of generating mechanical force through interaction of two contractile proteins: actin and myosin |
|
|
Term
| What are the two proteins that cause muscle contraction? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name the three types of skeletal muscle |
|
Definition
| Striated, somatic, and voluntary |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Alternating light and dark bands |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Moves bones and components of face |
|
|
Term
| Describe voluntary muscle |
|
Definition
| Capable of voluntary control |
|
|
Term
| What connects bones to muscle? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Passively transmit tension needed to move a bone |
|
|
Term
| What are antagonistic muscles? |
|
Definition
| Pairs of muscles that act in opposition to each other (flexors and extensors) |
|
|
Term
| How is one able to move one's body? |
|
Definition
| One set of muscles must be contracted while the other relaxed (i.e. triceps and biceps) |
|
|
Term
| What is a skeletal muscle cell called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Long cylinder from tendon to tendon; multinucleated; can conduct an action potential; surrounded by thin band of connective tissue; can contract independently of other fibers |
|
|
Term
| What are the smaller bundles inside myofibers? |
|
Definition
| Myofibrils are smaller bundles of contractile filaments |
|
|
Term
| What are the two categories of bands in myofibrils? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the two types of contractile filaments? |
|
Definition
| Thick (stacked down center of sarcomere) and thin (extend outside from z line) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Bundle of myosin; tails bundled in center and heads stick out on either side |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Comprise region on both sides of Z line containing thin filaments |
|
|
Term
| What are striations due to? |
|
Definition
| Contractile filaments arranged within myofibrils |
|
|
Term
| What proteins make up a thin filament? |
|
Definition
| Actin (contractile) has binding sites for myosin heads; tropomyosin binds to actin sites and covers myosin bonding sites; troponin which is a Ca cation binding protein |
|
|
Term
| What happens during muscle contraction? |
|
Definition
| Thin filaments of sarcomere slide between thick filaments towards center of sarcomere. Pull Z lines toward center and shorten sarcomere. |
|
|
Term
| During muscle contraction, what causes sliding and shortening? |
|
Definition
| Interaction between action and myosin heads. |
|
|
Term
| Name the four steps of actin-myosin interaction |
|
Definition
| released, extended, crossbridge, powerstroke |
|
|
Term
| What happens during releasing? |
|
Definition
| ATP molecules are bound to each myosin head. The myosin heads are not yet attached to actin. |
|
|
Term
| What happens during releasing? |
|
Definition
| The ATP molecule attached to the myosin head hydrolizes to form ADP+P. The energy is transferred to the myosin head causing it to bend backwards. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the cross bridge |
|
Definition
| Once the myosin head is extended the head attaches to the actin producing a cross bridge. THIS IS WHERE THE FORCE IS GENERATED? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When the ADP+P dissociate from myosin head and the head swivels towards center pulling thin filament causing it to slide. |
|
|
Term
| What are sliding and shortening due to? |
|
Definition
| Interaction between actin and myosin |
|
|
Term
| What is crossbridge formation dependent on? |
|
Definition
| Calcium cations. They bind to troponin (thin filaments) and shift the position of the tropomyosin which exposes myosin binding sites. |
|
|
Term
| Where do the calcium cations come from to perform the crossbridge? |
|
Definition
| Released from endoplasmic reticulum in response to action potential |
|
|
Term
| What are myofibrils covered in? |
|
Definition
| Transverse Tubules and sarcoplasmic reticulums |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| invagintion of plasma membrane; conduct action potentials; two for each sarcomere |
|
|
Term
| What is a sarcoplasmic reticulum? |
|
Definition
| ER of the muscle cell; extends from t tubule to t tubule; covers each sarcomere; stores extra Calcium cations for contraction |
|
|
Term
| What do somatic motor neurons do? |
|
Definition
| Send out several branches and innervate muscle dibers |
|
|
Term
| Define a motor unit and explain why it's called that |
|
Definition
| all the muscle fibers innerbated by all the branches; they are stimulated by same action potential and contract together |
|
|
Term
| What is the chemical synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How does the action potential in neuromuscular junction travel in the beginning? |
|
Definition
| Action potential goes along axon to axon and presynaptic membranes. |
|
|
Term
| Which neurotransmitter is released by the AP in a neuromuscular junction? Where does it go? |
|
Definition
| The AP stimulates release of acetylcholine. This diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors in the postsynaptic membrane. |
|
|
Term
| What does acetylcholine do once it is bound to a receptor? What is the resut? |
|
Definition
| This opens Sodium ion channels to open resulting in depolarization of postsynaptic membrane. The AP is created and conducted along plasma membrane and conducted along T tubules. |
|
|
Term
| What happens when the postsynaptic membrane is depolarized? |
|
Definition
| The AP stimulates the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and then stimulates muscle contraction. |
|
|
Term
| What is needed to relax a muscle? |
|
Definition
| Calcium is pumped back into sarcoplasmic reticulum. |
|
|
