Order

Reproduction

Growth and development

Energy processing

Response to environment

Regulation

Evolutionary adaptation

Cell Theory

Schleiden and Schwann (1839)

All organisms are made of cells and all cells come from pre-existing cells.

All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane

All cells contain DNA at some time in its life

Cytosol

Domains

Domain Bacteria

Domain Archea

Domain Eukarya

Kingdom Fungi

Kingom Plantae

Kingdom Animalia

Protists

Domain Eukarya

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Chordata

Class Mamalia

Order Primates

Family Hominidae

Genus Homo

Species Homo sapiens

Observations

Questions

Hypothesis

Prediction

Observations

Conclusions

Replications (Replicated regardless if hypotheses is supported)

Observations

Questions

Hypothesis

Prediction

Dependent Variable

Independent Variable

Controlled Variables

Experimental Group

Control Group

Conclusions

Replications (Replicated regardless if hypotheses is supported)

Between-Groups Design

Elements

Basic substance of nature

Have characteristic atoms

At least 92 naturally occuring elements

About 25 occur in living organisms

O- Oxygen

C- Carbon

H- Hydrogen

N- Nitrogen

Atoms

Smallest particles of nature that cannot be divided and retain characteristics of elements

The closer electrons are to the nucleus, the less potential energy the electrons have

The further, more potential energy

Average distance from nucleus where electrons are found

K = 2

L = 8

M = 8

Shows the atoms present in a molecule

e.g. H2O

Shows the covalent bonds between atoms and the arrangments of the atoms

e.g. H-H, O=O

How strongly atoms pull on shared electrons

Determined by how many electrons are in the outer shell

Few (1 or 2) vacancies in outer shell.

Tendency to gain extra electron

Readily give up electrons, few electrons in outer shell.

Buffers land and organisms from teperature extremes.

Only common substance to exist asliquid, solid and gas.

Polar molecule that forms hydrogen bonds.

Four emergent properties of water

Cohesion

Moderation of temperature

Expansion upon freezing

Versatile Solvent.

Like molecules bond together.

Solution

Do not dissolve in water.

Hydrocarbons and other nonpolar substances do not dissolve in water.

Organic molecule with only carbon and hydrogen

Nonpolar molecules, Hydrophilic.

Polar

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Polar

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Polar

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Polar

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Polar

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Polar

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Polar

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Not really a functional group, but sometimes included.

Hydrocarbon group. Often used to tag molecules.

E.g. Methylation of DNA

(-CH₃)

Sugars and polymers of suger are used for food and for structure.

Contain carbonyl functional group (aldoses and ketoses.)

Often -CH₂O groups recurs.

Differ by number of carbons functional groups present, and spatial arrangement of groups around an asymmetric carbon.

Simple Sugars.

Carbon skeletons serve as raw material for synthesis of other organic compounds.

E.g. Glucose, Fructose, Ribose, Deoxyribose

Monosaccharide.

A product of plant photosynthesis. Reactant in respiration process.

Alpha Glucose, -OH, -H flip Beta Glucose.

(C6H₁₂O₆)

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Large carbohydrates made of many simple sugars bonded together by dehydration reactions.

Often function for food storage or structural support.

Many glucose units bonded together, helical, may be branched, (alpha)α-glucose.

Our bodies can break the bonds apart with enzymes, and use as food.

Many (alpha) α-glucose units bonded together. More branched than start.

Stored in the liver and muscles.

Can be broken apart and used for food.

Many (beta)β-glucose units bonded togher. Not branched.

Cellulose molecules held together by hydrogen bonds into microfibrils.

Cannot be broken apart by most animals, some bacteria and some fungi can break apart.

Structural support in plants, major component of wood.

One or more double bonds (cis double bond kinks)

Do not have maximum # of hydrogen

Liquid at room temperature

Vegetable oil, canola oil, corn oil. Not as bad as saturated fatty acids.

Polymer of an amino sugar.

Similar to (beta) β-glucose but with an amino group attached.

Component of insect exoskeletons, in cell walls of many fungi. Cannot be digest or broken down by humans.

Organic molecules that are not polar and not soluble in water. Not polymers, function in energy storage, insulation of body, shock absorber to cushion organs.

Some are hormones.

E.g. Fats, waxes, oils phospholipids, steroids.

Phospholipids

Glycerol plus two fatty acids plus ionic phosphate containing group component of membranes.

Fatty acids are hydrophobic.

Ionic phosphate containing group is hydrophilic.

Four interlocking rings with various side groups attached.

Many function as hormones.

Material that makes up genes.

Made of nucleotides

Nucleotides

Deoxyribonucleic acid.

Nucleotides: Deoxyribose, phosphate group C, T, A, or G base.

Double helix: right handed screw shape, two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds.

Ribonucleic acid.

Nucleotide: Ribose, phosphate group, C, U, A or G base.

Involved in protein synthesis and gene regulation.

Many types of RNA, most are single stranded.

Helps to make sugar in photosynthesis using energy.

One or more polypeptide chains coded or coiled into a specific conformation, many important functions.

Cytoskeleton.

Protein

Cilia and flagella.

Protein

Also called a peptide, organic acid with a carboxyl group, amino group and a variable R group.

Subcellular structures with specific functions. Most are surrounded by membrane (Except ribosomes)

Contains multipe copies of genes needed to make rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

In the nucleus.

Composed of cisternae, paralell fluid sacs surrounded by membrane.

Ribosomes attached to the membrane.

Functions: Protein synthesis, protein packaging, protein secretion, phospholipid synthesis, glycoprotein synthesis, synthesize transport vesicles.

Composed of cisternae, parallel fluid filled sacs surrounded by membrane.

No ribosomes attached to membrane.

Functions: Carbohydrate metabolism, detoxification of drugs and poisons, calcium storage, produces oils, phospholipids and steroies.

Composed of cisternae, parallel fluid filled sacs surrounded by membrane.

Functions: Directs macromolecule transport, sorts, modifies, and re-labels molecules for transport, synthesizes carbohydrates, modifies carbohdrate tags on molecules, modifies glycoproteins, modifies phospholipids.

CIS face, side of the Golgi that recieves vesicles.

Trans face, "shipping" side of the apparatus.

Membrane bound sacs containing powerful digestive enzymes, pH of about 5.

Made in rER or Golgi.

Functions: Involved in exocystosis, digests old macromolecules, digests old organelles, programmed cell death, contain lipases, carbohydrases, proteases, and nucleases.

Membrane enclose sacs.

Usually larger and live longer than vesciles.

Present in plant cells.

Food vacuoles: Store and break apart food.

Contractile vacuoles: Expel excess water in some protists

Central vacuole of plants: Enclosed by tonoplast, helps maintain turgidity of cells, stores organic compounds and inorganic ions, break down organic molecules, store pigments, dumping ground for toxic wastes.

Membrane enclosed sacs, sometimes crystalline, lattice appearance.

Contain manay enzymes.

Function: Involved in reactions that strip hydrogen atoms from organic molecules and produce H₂O₂, Contain catalase to break down hydrogen peroxide, in some peroxisomes fatty acids are broken down into smaller molecules, detoxify alcohols.

Functions in direct metabolism

Growth

Development

Reproduction.

Involved in exocytosis

Digests old macromolecules

Digests old organelles

Programmed cfell death

Contain lipases (break down lipids)

Carbohydrases (break down carbohydrates)

Proteases (break down proteins)

Nucleases (break down nucleic acids)

Helps maintain turgidity of cells

Stores organic compounds and inogranic ions

Breaks down organic molecules

Store pigments

Dumping ground for toxic wastes

Site of aerobic cellular respiration

Photosynthesis

Synthesize carbohydrates

Synthesize amino acids.

Cell movment

Organelle movment

Involved in cell division

Hair-like structures that move cells

Flagella - few and long

Cilia - many and short

Cell division

Cell movement

Enable contents of cell to move around in order to distribute things

Organism movement.

Helps cells adhere together

Hold organelles such as nucleus in place

Formation of nuclear lamina

Tissue support

Pprovide tracks for cell movement

Mechanical signaling.

Functions in cell to cell communication.

Protein catalysts, often have -ase endings

Induced fit

-Template for substrate orientation

-Stressing substrates and stabilization transition state

-Providing a favorable microenvironment

-Participating directly in catalysis

Enzyme optimum temperature

Enzyme optimum pH

Anaerobic breakdown of organic compounds in cytoplasm. Cells have elctron transport chains but do not use oxygen as final electron acceptors.

Anaerobic partial breakdown of sugars in cytoplasm.

No electron transport chain.

Often produces ethanol or lactate.

Only produces about 2 ATP per glucose unit broken down

Aerobic respiration, aerobic breakdown of organic compounds. Begins in cytoplasm and ends in the mitochondrion, has electron transport chain.

More efficient (34%), 30-32 ATP per glucose unit broken down.

ADP + Pi + energy => ATP + H₂O

Transport work: Membrane pumps

Mechanical work: Movement of substances such motor proteins.

Chemical work: Product made from reactants, often terminal phosphate group attached to a molecule

Partial or complete loss of an electron or electrons often with the rest of the atom

Partial gain or loss involves a change in the degree of sharing in covalent bonds

Partial or complete gain of an electron or electrons often with the rest of the atom

Partial gain or loss involves a change in the degree of sharing in covalent bonds

Mitochondrion structure

Inner membrane and outer membrane

Cristae, folds of the innter membrane, increase surface area.

Intermembrane space (outer compartment), and matrix (inner compartment.

Expansion of glycolysis

Occurs in cytoplasm

No electron transport chain needed.

Does not require Oxygen.

Occurs in cytosol.

Glucose is starting material, 2 pyruvate are produced

Net of 2 ATP and 2 NADH produced.

Pyruvate enters mitochondrion by active transport

2 pyruvate are converted to 2 acetyl CoA

2 NADH produced, 2 CO₂ released.

Occurs in matrix of mitochondrion

2 acetyl coA enter and combine with 2 OAA to form 2 Citrate molecules

2 ATP, 6 NADH and 2 FADH₂ produced.

4CO₂ released.

Occurs on innter membrane of mitochondrion

NADH and FADH₂ donate electrons to electron transport chain. Respiratory ETC is a series of electron acceptor molecules. Each acceptor has increasing electronegativity.

 ** Final electron acceptor is oxygen **

Energy released from passing electrons is used to pump H⁺ into intermembrane space. H⁺ used to make much of ATP

Cell support

Cell movement

Cell to cell communication

Cell division

Cell receptors

Gene regulation

Passive transport

Active transport

Hormones

Neurotransmitters

Immune defense

Organism insulation

Organism protection

Organism support

Organism movement