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Biology of Aging Exam 2
Terms and concepts
121
Biology
Undergraduate 3
10/14/2007

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Cards

Term
Functions of the skin and what kinds of things does it protect us from:
Definition
Keeps inside in and outside out.  Protection from: Ultraviolet light, physical trauma, chemicals, infectious organisms, and water loss.  Also provides tempterature control, excretory, fat store, vitamin D, sensory input, hair and nail production and attachment.
Term
The epidermis is the _______ layer of skin.  
Definition
outer
Term
What is the Stratum Corneum?
Definition
The layer of dead cell shells, constantly shedding, oils important constantly replaced from less mature underlying cells.  Most of the dust in our houses comes from stratum corneum.
Term
What do melanocytes do?  
Definition
produce Melanin (SPF, modified amino acid)
Term
What is melanin?
Definition
A pigment, natuiral sunblock.  Helps our skin produce vitamin D when being exposed to sunlight.
Term
What function does keratinocytes have?
Definition
They produce structural proteins called karatin which are long stringy protein that possess a little bit of telomerase (hair).
Term
What are hair follicles and what do they do?
Definition
deep depressions of epidermis producing filamentious keratin bundles (hair).  Hair provides shade, insulation, sensation.  Nails are filamentous cross-linked keratin bundles.
Term
What do Langerhan cells do?              
Definition
Guard against foreign substances like bacteria
Term
The inner layer of skin is called the _______.
Definition
dermis
Term
What is the function of the dermis and what is it made of?
Definition
Made of predominately fibroblasts which produce proteins that crosslink collagen, elastin, and others.  This is waht holds hour skin together so it doesn't fall apart.
Term
What is the function of sweat glands?
Definition
Help reduce internal heat by excreting (salty) water that cools the skin as it evaporates.  This is called evaporative cooling.
Term
Sebvaceous gland functions?
Definition
produce oils that protect and lubricate the skin so they don't crack. (oils that was off with soap) includes pheromones involved in subconscious communication.
Term
What is the purpose of nerve endings?
Definition
in touch and temperature sensation and hair erection. sense temperature when it gets cold
Term
Regulation of body temperature in elder people:  
Definition
The skin gets thinner thus causing you to lose heat easier.  But in heat, older people tend to be more dehydrated.  Ability to sweat is diminished, and there is poorer vessel dilation.  Many elder people die from heat strokes.
Term
What is elastin?
Definition
protein that can stretch. fibers. they also curl up when you relax.  Elastin looses its strechyness when you age.  Many cross links develop when you age and it can't strectch as much which causes wrinkles.
Term
The most abundant protein in our body is _________.
Definition
Collagen
Term
What is the function of collagen?
Definition
provides lots of strength.  Fit together in a mesh like manner.  Like a fabric.  It gives a little so it can stretch.  When we get older the collagen begins to break and more cross links are produced.  Looses its elasticity which causes sagging.
Term
Nerve receptors are reduced by about ___ by age 90
Definition
2/3, this causes poorer preception of touch, cold, heat, and pain, therefore, there is reduced appropriate response.
Term
When you get older, sebaceous glands reduce ____ ________ so skin (and hair) dry out more.
Definition
oil production
Term
What is Xerosis?
Definition
Skin dryness.  It can be a problem on lower legs and arms.
Term
Why does hair become gray (clear) when you get older?
Definition
there is a loss of melanocytes that produce the pigment. 
Term
Why do we loose hair when we get older?
Definition
The follicles become smaller and cycle faster. (less testosterone)
Term
When we get older, our nose and ears continue to grow because ________ continues to grow.
Definition
cartilage
Term
Explain Photoaging:
Definition
Sun exposure leads to earlier wrinking, roughness, age spots, skin cancer, decline in sweat gland function and immune decline.
Term
4 things to look at when considering skin cancer:
Definition

1. asymmetry

2. border irregular

3. color change

4. diameter (>0.25 inch) 

Term
What is Pruritis?  
Definition
intense chronic itching.  Yeast, irritant, hives also can indicate any of a variety of internal problems.  Dermatitis (Eczema, Seborrhea, Psoriasis).  Inflammatory - irritant, allergy, diabetes or unknown.  W-6 causes inflammation, W-3 prevents inflammation (fish, animals).
Term
Herpes Zoster?
Definition
(shingles) skin lesion from reemerged chicken pox virus.  Severe burning and prikly sensation.  Emergence of blisters that contain live virus.  Crust over in a week, usually gone in 4 weeks.  Elderly frequently have extended bouts, may be given pain killers, immunosuppressants or anti-viral meds.  Stress can casue virus to re-emerge.
Term
In order to keep your skin healthy what should you do?
Definition
Limit sun, hydrate, move and stimulate skin.  Moving keeps your skin healthy.  massages.
Term
Vitamin D and the sun:
Definition
Vitamin D is in your skin to protect you from the sun.  If you don't get sun, you are not producting vitamin D.  This is linked to prostate cancer.  People who live closer to equater, have darker skin to protect rom skin cancer/ sun in general
Term
5 functions of the Cardiovascular System are:  
Definition

1. Bring nutrients and Oxygen to the tissues

2. Remove waste products (like CO2) from tissues fro disposal (kidneys, lungs)

3. Provide a network for communication among cells/tissues around the body.

4. Criculate immune cells and antibodies.

5. Warmth 

Term
Order of blood through the heart:
Definition

1. Blood comes from body tissues into the Superior and Inferior Vena Cava.

2. Right Atrium

3. Right Ventricle

4. Pulmonary Arteries

5. Lungs

6. Pulmonary veins retrun the blood to the heart's Left Atrium

7. Left Ventricle

8. Aorta

9. Organs and peripheral tissues. 

Term
___ - ___ ______ separate compartments and prevent reverse blood flow.
Definition
One-way valves
Term
The ____ ________ is the strongest in the heart.
Definition
left ventricle, left side of the heart has to work the hardest.
Term
The contraction of the left and right atria is stimulated by the __ ____.
Definition
SA node (pacemaker) Depolarizes cells fastest out of anywhere in the heart
Term
The contraction of the Left and Right Ventricles is stimulated by the __ ____.
Definition
AV Node.  Depolarizes cells the 2nd fastest which works with the SA node to squeeze blood out of the heart.
Term
Electrical depolarization of SA and AV nodes forms basis for the _________________ which allows doctors to observe and assess heart rhythem.
Definition
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Term
Systolic Pressure:  
Definition
Contraction of left ventricle peripheral blood pressure is highest.
Term
Diastolic pressure:
Definition
The pressure is lowest (resting)
Term
Blood pressure normally fluctuates dramatically from ___ mm Hg down to __ mm Hg.
Definition
120, 70
Term
Blood Pressurecan be further influenced by:
Definition

1. stress

2. kidney function

3. weather

4. blood pressure cuffs

These changes are actualized by blood chemicals that influence arterial muscle contraction. 

Term
Blood pressure is effected by two main factors:  
Definition

1. Cardiac Output

        -Heart Rate (Temp, Ions, Nerve Input, Hormones)

        -Stroke Volume (Return, Flilling/Emptying, Hormones)

2. Peripheral Resistance

        -Vessel diameter/elasticity, Blood Viscosity.

Term
There is higher blood pressure in the ________ and lower blood pressure in the _____.
Definition
arteries, veins
Term
Endothelium  
Definition
extracellular matrix support - smooth muscle layer - connective tissue layer - serosa.  One cell thick, very tin.  Prevents coagulation.  Holds blood in. Can regulate blood pressure
Term
Capillaries:  
Definition
the smallest blood vessels where exchange of nutrients occurs. Quite thin walls and reduced pressure.
Term
Simple diffusion vs active transport:
Definition
Simple diffusion is going from high to low concentration.  Active transport is using a source of energy to get something across a gradient (where proteins bind to molecules in blood and transport them into cells.)
Term
Lymph Nodes function:
Definition
Destroy microorganisms filtered through the interstitial space (space in between a cell).  Rich in white blood cells here.
Term
Spleen function:
Definition
The spleen filters microorganisms from the blood
Term
Thymus function:  
Definition
An important site for maturation of T cells (antibacterial and antiviral cells)
Term
List the 10 blood components:
Definition

1. Plasma - blood with cells removed (percentage that is the cells is the Hematocrit)

2. Serum - blood coagulated then cells and clots removed.

3. Water

4. Cells - RBC's, WBC's, Platelets

5. Fats - Lipoproteins, Hormones

6. Proteins - Albumin, Hormones, Fibrinogen, Immunoglobulins.

7. Minerals - Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, etc.

8. Nutrients - Carbohydrates, amino acids, vitamins

9. Gases - Oxygen, CO2, Nitrogen, Nitric Oxide(endothelial-derived relaxing factor)

10. Waste Products - CO2, Acid, Urea, Creatine, Uric acid, etc. 

Term
White blood cells (Leukocytes):
Definition

Neutrophils - travel the body in search of bacteria to eat.

Monocytes - similar role to neutrophils, mature into macrophages.

B cells - Make antibodies "humoral immunity"

T cells - "cellular immunity", antibacterial and antiviral 

Term
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes):
Definition

Gas Exchange

RBC production requires sufficient vitamin B12, folic acid, and iron.  Deficiency in any of these can lead to anemia at any age and of course, excess bleeding (including ulcers) can cause anemia.

Hemoglobin binds oxygen and carbon dioxide for transport. 

Term
Platelets are important in _____ _____.
Definition
blood clots.
Term

Platelets (not true cells), cell fragments:

 

Definition
Coagulation.  Most important thing, keeping wound ceiled.  Collagen adds strength to vessel walls.  Platelets + collagen = clot.
Term
What is Hemostasis?
Definition

Stoppage of bleeding.  When platelets interact with the collagen under the endothelial cells of the vascular lining they become activated and secrete certain chemicals that enhance platelet binding.

 

Term
What is a thrombus?
Definition
When damaged tissues release factors that lead to cleavage of fibrinogen that becomes fibrin that is sticky and forms a clot.
Term
Clots formed during a heart attack or stroke can sometimes be dissolved with what 2 things?
Definition

1. Streptokinase,

2. TPA (tissue plasminogen activator).

Both of these break up the clot. 

Term
Herparin and Aspirin also both aid in what?
Definition
Breaking up clots.  Heparin is a natural anti-clotting agent.  Aspirin also is an anti-clotting agent (blood thinner) and is used prophylactically to reduce risk of heart attack or stroke.
Term
When you age (normally), what sometimes begins to happen in the heart?
Definition

1. It can become covered by a layer of fat (triglycerides main energy source for heart).  The hearts endothelial layer (endocardium) becomes thicker with collagen.

2. Cardiac output decreases with normal adult aging (0.7% per year this adds up to a 30% reduction by age 75).

3. Valves become modified and somewhat less effective (damaged) Regurgitation - reverse flow of blood through defective valve.

4. Duration of systole increases leaving less time to refill (takes longer = less cardiac output.)

5. Maximum heart rate decreases with age. 

Term
When you age (abnormally), what happens to the heart?
Definition

1. SA node and/or signal distribution can begin to fail (cardiac disrhythmia flutter = rapid regular contraction), (Fibrillation = disorganized contractions).  Electrical device (pacemaker, defibrillator) can be implanted to stimulate appropriate rhythm.

2. Hypotension - low blood pressure

3. Atherosclerosis (Atheroma) - scarring of the arteries.

4. Thrombus

5. Hypertension    etc etc etc

Term
Hypotension:  
Definition

low blood pressure.  Inability to effectively pump blood due to low blood bolume, uncoordinated heart, chronic internal or external bleeding, poor liquid intake, shock or drugs.  Can lead to blackouts when standing up.

Treatment: pacemaker, hydration, treat for anemia. 

Term
Atherosclerosis (Atheroma):
Definition

LDL carries triglycerides and cholesterol from gut via the liver to body tissues.  LDL can become oxidized.  Fat adding!!  This is very bad.  Monocytes monitor intima of the blood vessels in search of foreign bodies and debris.  (Monocytes mature into macrophages.)  Macrophages under the intima engulf oxidized LDL and become foam cells which are full of fat.  They stay there and so do the cholesteral and triglycerides.  This process leads to Fatty streaks that reduce the diameter of the blood vessel and can lead to a clot.  The activated endothelium and foam cells produce factors that make the smooth muscle cells migrate and reproduce and make collagen.  Increased muscle moves into the artery wall (stenosis), forming Intermediate Lesions (any abnormal tissue change caused by disease.)  The lesions become larger and begin to take up Ca and cholesterol and become more stiff and can then be called Atherosclerotic Plaques.

HDL, on the other hand, is good.  It carries extra choleseterol from the other tissues back to the liver.  HDL is not as susceptible to oxidation.  Fat Reducing!

 Treatment: Diet(primary reason), exercise, stents, angioplasty, bypass.

Term
Hypercholesterolemia:
Definition
very high cholesterol level.
Term
Thrombosis:
Definition
Plaques may rupture under stress and lead to a thrombus or foam cells make tissu factor that, in turn, cause clotting.  Advanced plaques may break or otherwise stimulate clot thrombus formation.  This can cause a problem at this site, blocking blood flow.
Term
Embolus:
Definition
When a thrombus may break off into the blood flow.
Term
Infarction:
Definition
When the broken off thrombus gets lodged in the next blood vessel that is too large for it to pass through.
Term
Stroke (brain infarct):  
Definition
clot in brain.  3rd leading cause of death in USA.  If survived i tusually leads to impariment of mental and/or physical function.  Sometimes forewarned by transient ischemic attack (mild loss of function or numbness).
Term
Heart attack (myocardial infarction):
Definition
clot in the heart.  Leading cause of death in USA.
Term
Pulmonary Embolism:  
Definition
Clot in the lung.
Term
Thrombosis risk factors and treatment include:
Definition

high blood pressure, smoking, inactivity, diet, obesity, diabetes, menopause, male, stress, aging, impotence, high LDL, etc.

Treatment: treat hypertension, reduce atherosclerosis, blood thinners (anticoagulants). 

Term
Hypertension:  
Definition

High blood pressure (>140/90 mmHg); > half of Americans over 60.  Typical American diet leads to dysfunction in vascular health.

Risk factors: excess salt or alcohol, smoking, obesity, diabetes, atherosclerosis exacerbates this whole scenario.

Treatment: diuretics, Ca++ channel blockers, beta blockers, HDL, Exercise, Diet, SMoking Cessation. 

Term
Angina:  
Definition

Transient coronary artery constriction of occluded artery causing pain from anoxia. 

Treatment: vasodilators, reduce atherosclerosis, nitroglycerine pills. 

Term
Aneurism:
Definition
Collapsing of artery wall outward, may rupture and cause death.  Cause of death in 1 of 250 in over 50 population.  Really bad.  Most likely you will die.  Pressure build up. Years and years of high blood pressure.
Term

Compensatory Ventricular Hypertrophy:

Congestive Heart Failure: 

Definition

Compensatory Ventricular Hypertrophy (left ventricular hypertrophy) (enlarged heart).  Heart defects or hardened arteries make heart work harder, muscles enlarge when worked. this is bad!

 

CVH (congestive heart failure) - Inability to effectively pump blood.  Back pressure from poor cardiac function and atherosclerosis can lead to pulmonary edema (fluid builup) or swelling of  legs and feet.

 

Treatment: vasodilators, diuretics, digitalis, diet, exercise, quit smoking/alcohol. 

Term
What should you do to keep a healthy heart?
Definition
continue exercising.  Reduced oxygen levels in muscles leads to more anaerobic respiration and therefore more harmful acid, free radicals production in muscles and therfore easier tissue fatigue.  Reduction in heart cell mitochondria, ATP and creatine phosphate (energy molecule)
Term
what is an angioplasty?
Definition
where they push a deflated baloon into a partially clogged artery, inflate the ballon and pullit out and crack up the plaque build up.  Traumatic.
Term
Function of the Respiratory System:
Definition

1. Provide O2 to carry out respiration in cells

2. Get rid of CO2 waste

3. Protect against infection 

Term
Movement of air through the respiratory system:
Definition

1.  Air passes through nose (filtered by nose hairs) and/or mouth to the

2. Parynx

3. Epiglottis

4. Trachea

5. Two bronchi

6. Many bronchioles

7. Aveoli 

Term
Resting breathing is constituted by _____ ______.
Definition
Tidal Volume.
Term
When more oxygen is needed the ___________ _______ ______ is invoked and deep breathing occurs, usually accompanied by forced exhalation of the __________ _______ ______ which together constitute the _____ ________.
Definition
Inspiratory Reserve Volume, Expiratory Reserve Volume, Vital Capacity.
Term
The remaining volume following exhalation of the expiratory reserve volume is the ________ ______, that cannot be exhaled but does constitute a big part of the _____ ____ ________.
Definition
Residual volume, Total lung capacity.
Term
__________ cells in the trachea and bronchi secrete mucus to trap particulates.
Definition
epithelial
Term
_____ line airway and transport airborne particulates up to pharynx for swallowing
Definition
cilia
Term
In the aveoli, what is the function of alveolar macrophages?
Definition
to kill infection and rid the alveoli of particulates like pollen.  Basically keeping the alveoli clean.
Term
What is the purpose of the surfactant cells in the alveoli?
Definition
secretes lipids and proteins that aid in gas exchange.  Lowers the surface tension so it is easier for O2 to get across the aveoler membrane.
Term

The total volume that accounts for the alveoli is _ - _ liters

The total surface area that accounts for the alveoli is __ - __ square meters. 

Definition

5 - 6

70 - 90 

Term
Gas exchange is proportional to _______ ____.
Definition
surface area
Term
The alveoli have to be highly vascular in order to transfer gases from air to blood and back.
Definition

Blood vessels = endothelial

Cells exposed to external environment = epithelial 

Term
what in the red blood cells binds with the oxygen?
Definition
hemoglobin
Term
What percentage of Oxygen is returned to the lungs unused?
Definition
75%
Term
Breathing is both concious and unconscious by the brain, but inhalation is _____ whereas exhalation is usually _______.
Definition
active, passive
Term
Increasing ___ in blood (from cellular respiration) stimulates increased respiration.
Definition
CO2
Term
What is Dyspnea?
Definition
difficulty in breathing.
Term
When you age what happens to lung capacity? (Vital capacity and residual volume)
Definition

Vital capacity is reduced by age 60 (about 1/5) - rate of decline is 2-3 times greater in smokers

Residual volume increases from 25% - 40% by age 60.  Effective exhalation must be conscious.

Narrowed airways lead to less gas exchange with breathing effectively increasing residual volume.

Term
When you age, there is a reduction in flexibility and strength of the rib cage.  What are some likely causes of this?
Definition

1. Cartilage calcification

2. Protein fiber cross-linking

3. Weaker muscles cannot expand chestt fully

4. Therefore, shift more to abdominal 

Term
When you age, what happens with the bronchioles and the cilia?
Definition
The bronchioles narrow with age and ciliary movement becomes less efficient and mucus thickens.
Term
Chronic Bronchitis:
Definition
Chronic soughing, excess mucus production by epithelial cells.
Term
Chronic Asthma:
Definition
Smooth muscle cells constrict and mucus-producing epithelial cells produce excess mucus when hypersensitized.
Term
What is aspiration?
Definition
Swallowing may become uncoordinated and "aspiration" of food can lead to serious respiratory problems; helps to turn head to swallow.
Term
Coal miners can get _____ lung and mill workers can get _____ lung.
Definition
black, brown
Term
Explain what Pulmonary Fibrosis is:
Definition

(scarring and thickening) - build up of fibrous material, (walling off) occurs as a result of breathing particulates and fibrous materials.  Death of many alveolar epithelial cells (less surface).  Scarring and thickening reduces elasticity.

Through time, the alveoli gets thicker due to scarring from foreign particles.  Free radicals are produced and damages cells.  ONce repaireed the alveoli walls are thicker.  (not good, need it to be thin for gas exchange) 

Term
Long-term alveolar damage leads to emphysema which is?
Definition
over 55, 5th leading cause of death among men, 7th among women.  Common among smokers.  Irreversible damage and degradation of alveolar walls.  Reduces surface area to exchange gases .  Compounded by reduced lung elasticity and greater residual volume.
Term
What is Pneumonia?
Definition
(bacterial, viral, or fungal) - 'old man's friend' - has always ben a big killer of the old, young, and weak.  (penicillin) Recently, however, more virulent strains are emerging causing problems in a broader sector of society.
Term
What is tuberculosis?
Definition
Also been an important killer in the elderly, and others.  More virulent (antibiotic-resistant) strains are emergin causing problems.
Term
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD):
Definition
Accumulation of alot of different pulmonary diseases (pneumonia, TB, emphysema, influenza).
Term
The number 1 cause of cancer deaths, roughly 150,000 deaths per year?
Definition
LUNG CANCER
Term
Pulmonary Embolism:
Definition
Blood clot in the lung - This blocks blood flow through the lung, reducing blood oxygenation and causes inflammation in the lungs.
Term
Functions of the nervous system:
Definition

1. Running and coordinating basic body functions

2. Immediate responses to simple stimuli

3. Thinking

4. Memory

5. Communication 

Term
What is the job of a neuron?
Definition
to conduct electrical signals from one place to another.  Sensory, effector, storage of information.
Term
Neurons are composed of what 3 things and what are their functions?
Definition

1. Cell body - maintains cell

2. Dendrites - pick up signals

3. Axons - deliver signals 

Term

Electrical gradient is composed of what?

Chemical gradient is composed of what? 

Definition

Electrical gradient is composed of 70 mV positive vs negative charges.

Chemical gradient is composed of sodium/potassium

This is how nerve impulses are transmitted. 

Term
What is a synapse?
Definition
A gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another.  The signal gets t the next cell NOT by the electrical signal jumping synapse but by a chemical signal (neurotransmitter) being secreted by the axon and binding to the dendrite.  The neurotransmitter is either borken down (acetyl choline) or remoived (epinephrine) within milliseconds to prepare for the next impulse.
Term
All or None response to stimulus (heat, light, pain, etc.)
Definition
can't partially stimulate a nerve.  Intensity relates to how many neurons are sent to brain.  Depolarization frequency NOT magnitude.
Term
What are neuroglial cells?
Definition
They support brain neurons.  Cells that generate most brain tumors.  Where brain cancer usually develops.
Term

Schwann Cells and Oligodendrocites do what?

Definition
Insulate most axons with myelin sheath, increase transmission rate.
Term
Astrocytes do what?
Definition
coat the capillaries forming the Blood-Brain Barrier.
Term
Spinal cord controls what?
Definition
Reflexes, autonomic nervous system - control of vital/primitive functions including most major organs, integration to brain.
Term
Brainstem(Midbrain, Pons Medulla, Cerebellum) control what?
Definition
Involved with unconscious activities like respiration, cardiovascualr function, wake/sleep, GI control, some motor control coordination, smooth action.
Term
Forebrain controls what?
Definition
Memory, thought, judgement, emotion voluntary motor, auditory, visual, speech, integration of senses, body system monitoring - temperature, pulse, blood pressure, hunger, thirst, bladder, GI, satiety (satisfaction), hormone production.
Term
The brain uses _______ as its primary energy source.
Definition
glucose
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