Term
|
Definition
| The structure (form) of an organism; how its parts are organized and of what it’s made |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The physical and chemical processes (functions) of an organism; how the body works |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Evolutionary history and physical laws place limits on __ |
|
|
Term
independent
(i.e. convergent evolution) |
|
Definition
| Physical laws constrain form thus natural selection results in similar features in __ evolutionary lineages |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Surface Area to volume ratio affects rate of H2O or heat loss or
gain thus body size and shape is constrained by __ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Small animals loose H2O and heat __ than large animals due to higher SA/V |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Animals w/ long bodies or limbs loose H2O and heat __ than compact animals due to higher SA/V |
|
|
Term
| H2O, gas, nutrient and waste |
|
Definition
| Surface Area to volume ratio affects rate of __ exchange |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Cell __ affects rate of exchange |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Large cells have more difficulty moving substances in and out thus cell size is __ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Thus organism size is constrained in that to be bigger they must have __ cells not __ cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| since __ cells must exchange materials with the environment an organism size is constrained |
|
|
Term
Many simple animals are flat or designed so that
most cells are in contact with external environment
e.g. sponge, hydra, flatworm |
|
Definition
ALL cells must exchange materials with the environment an organism size is constrained unless it can circumvent this constraint.
How can this constraint be circumvented? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ cells must exchange materials with the environment |
|
|
Term
1. folded internal surfaces to increase SA/V
2. delivery/ removal systems
(circulatory, digestive, respiratory & excretory systems interface w/ cells via interstitial fluids)
3. fluid filled compartments --> a. coelom or pseudocoelom; b. hemocoel |
|
Definition
| ALL cells must exchange materials with the environment. How can this constraint be circumvented with complex organisms? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Greater size means greater __ / __ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ – aggregation of specialized cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ – aggregation of multiple tissues |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ – aggregation multiple organs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ = A group of similar specialized cells that function as a unit |
|
|
Term
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nervous |
|
Definition
| what are the four types of animal tissues? |
|
|
Term
1. Surfaces that interface w/ outside
- epidermis, cornea, mouth, rectum
- GI, respir., repro., urinary tracts
2. Lines vessels & ducts
3. Glands (skin, liver etc.)
4. Membranes (peritoneum, pericardial, pleural etc.) |
|
Definition
| where does epithelial tissue occur? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| what are the main functions of epithelial tissue? |
|
|
Term
mechanical damage
chemical damage
desiccation
infection
cleaning |
|
Definition
| the epithelial tissue functions in protection how? |
|
|
Term
absorption
secretion (glands) |
|
Definition
| epithelial tissue functions in metabolic functions how? |
|
|
Term
1. # of layers
simple vs. stratified
2. cell shape:
3. Specialization
ciliated
glandular
keritinized |
|
Definition
| epithelial tissues can be classified based on what? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| what is the epithelial cell shape of cuboidal |
|
|
Term
| like bricks standing on end |
|
Definition
| what is the epithelial cell shape columnar |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| what is the epithelial cell shape squamous |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| what is the epithelial cell arrangement simple epithelium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| what is the epithelial cell arrangement stratified epithelium |
|
|
Term
| a single layer of cells varying in height |
|
Definition
| what is the epithelial cell arrangement pseudostratified epithelium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| there are __ different types of connective tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ are to bind and support other tissues in the body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a group of cells, usually similar in both structure and function, bound together to carry out one or more specialized tasks. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the tissue which functions as the protective coverings of the body, lines internal organs, made up of close together cells which act as a barrier |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tissue which gives structural support of body parts, used for energy storage, made up of cells separated by a matrix |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tissue responsible for movement of body parts and internal organs, made up of contractible cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| type of muscle tissue where cells are very long and are responsible for voluntary control |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| type of muscle tissue that lines internal organs and is responsible for involuntary control |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| type of involuntary muscle tissue only found in the heart |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tissue responsible for regulation of body activities by receiving and sending electric signals, composed of excitable cells called neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a primary mechanism of homeostasis where a response that reduces the stimulus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a physiological control mechanism in which a change in a variable triggers mechanisms that amplify the change (stimulus) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the steady-state physiological condition of the body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a body part; two or more tissue types that function together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| two or more organs that work to perform a common function |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a connective tissue consisting of living cells held in a rigid matrix of collagen fibers embedded in calcium salts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a flexible connective tissue with an abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fibrous connective tissue that joins bones together at joints |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a connective tissue that insulates the body and serves as a fuel reserve |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a nerve cell, fundamental unit of nervous system, conducts signals by taking advantage of electrical charge across its plasma membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time |
|
|
Term
| Stratified Squamous Epithelium |
|
Definition
| Skin is composed of this and it regenerates new skin cells by rapid cell division near the Basal Laminu. New cells are pushed out to replace older or sloughed off cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Bind and support other tissues in the body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers bind epithelium to underlying tissues and hold organs in place |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mineralized connective tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Specialized loose connective tissue that stores fat in adipose cells distributed throughout its matrix. Each cell contains a large fat droplet that swells when fat is stored and shrinks when the body uses that fat as fuel |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sense stimuli and transmit signals in the form of nervous impulse |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Extensions called axons uniquely specialized to transmit nerve impulses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fluctuation in the variable above or below the set point |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Detects the stimulus and triggers a response |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A physiological activity that helps return the variable to the set point |
|
|
Term
| Negative Feedback Example |
|
Definition
| Nervous system triggers sweat to counteract the heat produced by exercise |
|
|
Term
| Positive Feedback Example |
|
Definition
| The baby's head hitting the receptors of a mother's uterus, causing the opening of the uterus, and great pressure until childbirth |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Animals warmed by heat generated by the metabolism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Species that get their heat from external sources |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An animal's body temperature varies with the environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An animal's body temperature is constant |
|
|
Term
1. collagenous
2. elastic
3. reticular |
|
Definition
| what are the three kinds of connective tissue fibers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| provide strength combined with flexibility. made of collagen. most abundant protein. nonelastic and do not tear easily when pulled lengthwise |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| easily stretched but are also resilient, snapping back to their original length when tension is released. shaped as long threads and made of protein called elastin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| very thin and branched. composed of collagen and continuous with collagenous fibers, they form tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues. prevent the tissue from being pulled far from the bone |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| secrete the protein ingredients of the extracellular fibers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cells that roam the maze of fibers, engulfing both foreign particles and the debris of dead cells by phagocytosis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
w/ all 3 fiber types
Holds skin & most other organs in place |
|
|
Term
| fibrous connective tissue |
|
Definition
Mainly collagen fibers
Tendons and ligaments |
|
|
Term
| cartilage connective tissue |
|
Definition
Collagen fibers in an abundant rubbery ECM
both which are secreted by cells (chondrocytes) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Collagen fibers in an abundant solid ECM both
which are secreted by cells (osteocytes) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Various cell types in a liquid ECM |
|
|
Term
| adipose connective tissue |
|
Definition
Mainly large storage cells
Cushions, insulates and stores fuel |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a connective tissue disease from vitamin C deficiency, it prevents collagen synthesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Morphology:
Elongated cells (aka fibers)
Unbranched or branched
Single or multiple nuclei
Function:
Movement
Contract due to nerve signals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Muscle tissue + connective tissue + nerves + blood vessels
= an organ called a __ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Long, wide, parallel cells
• Multiple nuclei located on edges
• Striated
Voluntary
Location & function?
• Attached to bones by tendons
• Primarily used for movement |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Small tapered cells
• 1 nucleus
• Not striated;
Involuntary
Location & function
•In walls of blood vessels, digestive tract, urinary bladder, reproductive tract
Aids in digestion, circulation, reproduction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Long, branched cells
• 1 nucleus
• Striated
Involuntary
Intercalated disks between cells
- faster communication btwn cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| what are the two general classes of cells in nervous tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Transmit electrical signals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ morphology is a cell body, axon, and dendrites |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
– carries signal away from cell body toward
another neuron, muscle or gland |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| – carries signal towards cell body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Various types which function in:
anchoring neurons
providing nutrients for neurons
removing dead cells
form myelin sheath (increases transmission speed)
10x more abundant than neurons |
|
|
Term
Sense stimuli
Transmit signals btwn body parts |
|
Definition
| what is the function of nervous tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Transmit signals btwn specific locations
Better for rapid response |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Transmit molecules via the blood stream
Better for gradual changes that affect the entire body |
|
|
Term
Epithelial
connective
smooth
connective and epithelial |
|
Definition
In some organs, tissues arranged in distinct layers
e.g. Lumen of stomach
Mucosa: __ layer
Submucosa: __ tissue
Muscularis: __ muscle
Serosa: __ tissues |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the signaling molecules broadcast throughout the body by the endocrine system are called |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hormones are relatively __ acting |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in the nervous system, each signal, called a nerve impulse, travels to a target cell along a dedicated communication line, consisting mainly of the neuron extensions called __ |
|
|
Term
1. other neurons
2. muscle cells
3. endocrine cells
4. exocrine cells |
|
Definition
| what four types of cells receive nerve impulses |
|
|
Term
| more than one type of signal |
|
Definition
| signaling in the nervous system usually involves __ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the __ is well suited for coordinating gradual changes that affect the entire body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the __ is well suited for directing immediate and rapid response to the environment, especially in controlling fast locomotion and behavior |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The uptake of small nutrient molecules by an organism's own body; the third main stage of food processing, following digestion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A mixture of recently swallowed food and gastric juice. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A digestive tract consisting of a tube running between a mouth and an anus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A small, fingerlike extension of the vertebrate cecum; contains a mass of white blood cells that contribute to immunity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A mixture of substances that is produced in the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and acts as a detergent to aid in the digestion and absorption of fats |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A lubricated ball of chewed food |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An animal that eats relatively large pieces of food. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An animal, such as a shark, hawk, or spider, that eats other animals. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A blind outpocket of a hollow organ such as an intestine. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| One of the small intracellular globules composed of fats that are mixed with cholesterol and coated with special proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A digestive tube that runs between a mouth and an anus; also called an alimentary canal. An incomplete digestive tract has only one opening. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The process of breaking down food into molecules small enough for the body to absorb. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The first section of the small intestine, where acid chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and gland cells of the intestinal wall. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The passing of undigested material out of the digestive compartment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The process in digestion that splits macromolecules from food by the enzymatic addition of water. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A cartilaginous flap that blocks the top of the windpipe, the glottis, during swallowing, which prevents the entry of food or fluid into the respiratory system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A channel that conducts food, by peristalsis, from the pharynx to the stomach. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An amino acid that an animal cannot synthesize itself and must obtain from food. Eight amino acids are essential in the human adult. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Certain unsaturated fatty acids that animals cannot make. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A substance that an organism must absorb in preassembled form because it cannot be synthesized from any other material. In humans, there are essential vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and fatty acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The breakdown of food outside cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The wastes of the digestive tract |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An animal that lives by sucking nutrient-rich fluids from another living organism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An organ that stores bile and releases it as needed into the small intestine. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An extensive pouch that serves as the site of extracellular digestion and a passageway to disperse materials throughout most of an animal's body. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A large circulatory channel that conveys nutrient-laden blood from the small intestine to the liver, which regulates the blood's nutrient content |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A heterotrophic animal that eats plants |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A heterotrophic mode of nutrition in which other organisms or detritus are eaten whole or in pieces. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The joining of food vacuoles and lysosomes to allow chemical digestion to occur within the cytoplasm of a cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A tiny lymph vessel extending into the core of an intestinal villus and serving as the destination for absorbed chylomicrons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The tubular portion of the vertebrate alimentary tract between the small intestine and the anus; functions mainly in water absorption and the formation of feces. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The largest organ in the vertebrate body. The liver performs diverse functions, such as producing bile, preparing nitrogenous wastes for disposal, and detoxifying poisonous chemicals in the blood |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Referring an animal whose diet is missing one or more essential nutrients. |
|
|
Term
| microvillus (plural, microvilli) |
|
Definition
| One of many fine, fingerlike projections of the epithelial cells in the lumen of the small intestine that increase its surface area |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In nutrition, a chemical element other than hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen that an organism requires for proper body functioning. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A heterotrophic animal that consumes both meat and plant material. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A diet that is chronically excessive in calories. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A gland with dual functions: The nonendocrine portion secretes digestive enzymes and an alkaline solution into the small intestine via a duct; the endocrine portion secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon into the blood. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An enzyme present in gastric juice that begins the hydrolysis of proteins. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The inactive form of pepsin that is first secreted by specialized (chief) cells located in gastric pits of the stomach. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (1) Rhythmic waves of contraction of smooth muscle that push food along the digestive tract. (2) A type of movement on land produced by rhythmic waves of muscle contractions passing from front to back, as in many annelids. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An area in the vertebrate throat where air and food passages cross; in flatworms, the muscular tube that protrudes from the ventral side of the worm and ends in the mouth. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In the vertebrate digestive tract, a muscular ring that regulates the passage of food out of the stomach and into the small intestine. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The terminal portion of the large intestine where the feces are stored until they are eliminated. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An animal, such as a cow or a sheep, with an elaborate, multicompartmentalized stomach specialized for an herbivorous diet. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A salivary gland enzyme that hydrolyzes starch. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The longest section of the alimentary canal; the principal site of the enzymatic hydrolysis of food macromolecules and the absorption of nutrients. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A ringlike valve consisting of modified muscles in a muscular tube, such as a digestive tract; closes off the tube like a drawstring. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An organ of the digestive system that stores food and performs preliminary steps of digestion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An organism that lives in or on its food source, eating its way through the food |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An aquatic animal, such as a clam or a baleen whale, that sifts small food particles from the water. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A diet that is chronically deficient in calories. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (1) A finger-like projection of the inner surface of the small intestine. (2) A fingerlike projection of the chorion of the mammalian placenta. Large numbers of villi increase the surface areas of these organs. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An organic molecule required in the diet in very small amounts. Vitamins serve primarily as coenzymes or parts of coenzymes. |
|
|
Term
Chemical energy
ATP
NADPH
Byproducts
H2O
CO2
NH3 (ammonia in urine) |
|
Definition
| an animals diet provides organic molecules which are converted into chemical energy and by products...what are the chemical energy and by products? |
|
|
Term
Activity
Growth
Maintenance
Reproduction
Synthesis of complex organic molecules |
|
Definition
| the organic molecules which are converted into chemical energy are used to power processes in the body such as |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
__ needed to synthesize organic molecules
is obtained from the diet |
|
|
Term
Carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Amino acids
Fatty acids
Vitamins
Minerals |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
diet
i.e. are essential nutrients |
|
Definition
Other needed organic molecules cannot be synthesized and must be obtained
in the __ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Required by cells
Cannot be synthesized form dietary organic molecules
Must be obtained from dietary sources |
|
|
Term
Amino acids
Fatty acids
Vitamins
Minerals |
|
Definition
| what are the four classes of essential nutrients |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Animals require __ amino acids for protein synthesis
Can synthesize ~ ½ from molecules in diet
Thus ~ ½ are essential |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Acids produced when fats are broken down
Saturated and unsaturated
Used to produce some membrane phospholipids and for hormone production
e.g. blood pressure, immune response, inflammation response |
|
|
Term
| linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids |
|
Definition
| Animals can synthesize all but what two fatty acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Deficiencies in fatty acids are __ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Organic molecules required in the diet in small amounts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Functions:
Coenzymes or precursors for coenzymes (bind to enzymes increasing their activity)
Hormone-like functions
e.g. regulate mineral metabolism, cell growth/ differentiation
Antioxidants
reduce oxidation reactions that can damage cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Different species have __ vitamins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ known vitamins in humans |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
there are __ water-soluble vitamins: Need regular replacement in body
there are __ fat-soluble vitamins: Stored in the liver and fatty tissues, and are eliminated much more slowly than water-soluble vitamins.
Overconsumption can cause health problems |
|
|
Term
vitamin A
vitamin D
vitamin E
vitamin K |
|
Definition
| what are the four fat-soluble vitamins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Inorganic chemical elements required by living organisms in small amounts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Functions:
Coenzymes
Operation of nerves and muscles
Building of structures and molecules
e.g. bones, ATP, nucleic acids
Osmotic balance
e.g. Na, K, Cl |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ minerals must be obtained in diet |
|
|
Term
ingestion
digestion
absorption
elimination |
|
Definition
| what are the four stages of food processing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- breaking food down into molecules small enough to absorb
Mechanical
Chemical |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - uptake of nutrients by body cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - passage of undigested material out of the digestive tract |
|
|
Term
| suspension (filter) feeders |
|
Definition
| Aquatic animals that sift small food particles from the water |
|
|
Term
| substrate (deposit) feeder |
|
Definition
| An animal that ingests partially decayed organic materials along with substrate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Eat relatively large pieces of food |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hydrolysis of food inside vacuoles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| breakdown of food in compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animals body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
In animals w/ a complete digestive tract, digestion is primarily __
often w/ specialized structures or compartments to improve efficiency |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In mammals most digestion is extracellular but the final stages of protein & carbohydrate digestion are __ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in mouth, stomach and small intestine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mechanical digestion begins in the __ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Occurs in the mouth, stomach and small intestine |
|
|
Term
A. Carbohydrases – Carbohydrates
B. Proteases – Proteins
C. Nucleases - Nucleic acids
D. Lipases - Fats |
|
Definition
| chemical digestion is Initiated by what 4 general classes of enzymes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
HCl – in __
Bile salts – in __ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ part of digestion occurs in the mouth |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ part of digestion is in the stomach |
|
|
Term
| carbohydrates, nucleic acids, fats, nucleases |
|
Definition
| __ part of digestion is in the lumen of small intestine |
|
|
Term
| carbs, protein, and nucleic acid |
|
Definition
| __ part of digestion is in the epithelium of the small intestine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Chemical digestion begins in the _ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
__ is a carbohydrase produced by the salivary glands
that breaks down (hydrolyzes) the carbohydrate starch |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ transports food from mouth to stomach for further digestion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ layers of smooth muscles running in different directions in the stomach to mix food so that all surfaces are exposed to digestive chemicals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Gastric glands in stomach have 3 types of __ that aid digestion |
|
|
Term
Mucus cells - mucus
Chief Cells - pepsinogen
Parietal Cells - H+ and Cl- |
|
Definition
| Epithelial cells of gastric gland have what 3 cell types that secrete different substances |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Pepsin and HCl are formed in the __ of the gastric gland |
|
|
Term
1. Pepsinogen, H+ and Cl- secreted by chief and parietal cells of gastric gland
2. H+ and Cl- combine to form HCl in the lumen of the gastric gland
3. HCl converts pepsinogen to the enzyme pepsin in the lumen of the gastric gland
4. Pepsin converts (activates) more pepsinogen to pepsin (i,.e. positive feedback loop) |
|
Definition
| what are the steps of chemical digestion in the stomach |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
While some enzymatic breakdown occurs in the mouth and stomach,
most occurs in the small intestine and most in the _ |
|
|
Term
carbohydrases, proteases, nucleases
carbohydrases, proteases, nucleases, lipases |
|
Definition
Enzymes produced by:
SI epithelial cells (aka “brush border”)***
__
Pancreas
__ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
, produced by the liver, coat fat and separate it for breakdown by lipase
(secreted from the pancreas) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Bile is secreted from the __ and stored and concentrated in the __
which then secretes it to the small intestine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
In addition to enzymes, the pancreas also produces __ which neutralizes HCl
on food from stomach |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Fermentation of plant materials before the large intestine
e.g. sheep, cattle, hippopotamus, kangaroos, hamsters |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Fermentation of plant materials in the cecum (ceca)(1st part of large intestine) or the colon
e.g. horses, elephants, pigs, koalas, opossums, herbivorous birds and lizards (e.g. iguana) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Many of the vitamins and proteins produced by the bacteria of hindgut
Fermenters are lost in the feces. Some spp eat their feces to obtain unabsorbed nutrients. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _ is in the small intestine mainly in jejunum and some in ileum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
__ = fingerlike projections of intestinal wall
__ = projections of cell membranes |
|
|
Term
circulatory system
lymphatic system |
|
Definition
in absorption Most nutrients enter __
Some fats enter __ |
|
|
Term
1. Absorption of water
2. Absorption of vitamins (biotin, K, B7) created by bacteria in caecum |
|
Definition
Absorption
in the large intestine |
|
|
Term
Storage and Elimination
in the large intestine |
|
Definition
Final portion of colon is the rectum
Internal sphinctor muscle = involuntary
External sphinctor muscle = voluntary |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ cells must exchange materials with the environment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| what materials must all cells exchange with the environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Direct exchange w/ environment __ possible for most cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Transport system that connects “organs of exchange” w/ entire body
Allows all cells to exchange w/ the environment
Allows communication between different organs and organ systems |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Gastrovascular cavity
Functions in:
Digestion
Distribution of substances throughout entire
Body (i.e. “circulation”)
Nutrients need to diffuse through 1 cell layer |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| complex animals have __ components in their circulation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| what 3 components do complex animals have in their circulation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Blood never leaves tubes and moves in one direction;
O2 rich blood doesn’t mix w/ O2 poor blood nor waste (NH3)
O2/nutrients/NH3 moves btwn cells & blood via interstitial fluids
Occurs in some invertebrates & ALL vertebrates. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Tubes open-ended;
Tissues/organs in hemocoel bathe in hemolymph
Hemolymph: analogous to blood + interstitial fluid
O2 rich and poor hemolymph and waste (NH3) mix
Occurs in arthropods & mollusks |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Lower pressure so requires less energy |
|
|
Term
| closed circulatory system |
|
Definition
Higher pressure allows distant delivery (i.e. bigger bodies)
Allows for a design in which oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood is not mixed |
|
|
Term
| closed circulatory systems |
|
Definition
Consists of blood vessels and a 2 to 4 chambered heart
Blood vessels
Heart → Arteries → Arterioles → Capillaries →
→ Venules → Veins → Heart
Heart chambers
Atria (1-2)
Ventricles (1-2) |
|
|
Term
2-chambers (1A, 1V)
Single circulation |
|
Definition
Closed Circulatory System
Fishes |
|
|
Term
3-chambers (2A, 1V)
Some O2 rich/poor blood mixes
but ridge keeps most separate
When diving, O2 poor blood diverted from lungs but not skin
(i.e. cutaneous respiration)
Double circulation |
|
Definition
closed circulatory systems
amphibians |
|
|
Term
Turtles, snakes, lizards: 3-chambers (2A, 1V)
Partial septum in ventricle keeps almost all O2 rich/poor
blood separate
Crocs: 4-chambers (2A, 2V)
TWO systemic aortas in turtles, snakes, lizards and crocodilians
When diving, O2 poor blood diverted from lungs in some reptiles
Double circulation |
|
Definition
reptiles
(except birds)
closed circulatory system |
|
|
Term
4-chambers (2A, 2V)
Double circulation |
|
Definition
mammals
closed circulatory systems |
|
|
Term
1. R atrium to R ventricle
2. to pulmonary arteries
3. to capillaries of lungs
4. to pulmonary vein
5. to L atrium to L venticle
6. to aorta
7. to coronary arteries of heart and arteries/ capillaries of the head,
limbs and organs
8. to anterior and posterior vena cava
9. to R atrium |
|
Definition
| what is the mammalian circulation |
|
|
Term
| Ventricles under > pressure thus have thicker walls |
|
Definition
| in a mammalian heart, walls __ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in mammalian hearts, __ prevent backflow |
|
|
Term
Atrioventricular
Semilunar
valves of mammalian heart |
|
Definition
__ – from ventricles back into atria
__ – from aorta/pulmonary arteries back into |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The sequence of contraction and relaxation
that makes up the heartbeat |
|
|
Term
1. Atrial and ventricular diastole (=relaxation)
2. Atrial systole (=contraction); ventricular diastole (=relaxation)
3. Ventricular systole (=contraction); atrial diastole |
|
Definition
| what are the steps of the cardiac cycle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Blood volume pumped/ minute |
|
|
Term
| heart rate and stroke volume |
|
Definition
| what does cardiac output depend on |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Amount of blood pumped from
ventricle per contraction |
|
|
Term
1. Sinoatrial node generates signal causing atria to contract
2. Signals delayed at atrioventricular node
3. Signals pass to heart apex
4. Signals spreads throughout ventricles |
|
Definition
| what is the control of heart rhythm |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
sets contraction rate and timing
b. affected by physiological cues (e.g. hormones, temp., exercise)
Intercalated discs between cardiac muscle cells speed transmission of signal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| both veins and arteries have _ tissue layers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the outer connective tissue layer is __ in arteries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the middle smooth muscle layer is __ in arteries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A smooth simple squamous epithelium
Similar in arteries and veins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the capillary structure has 1 tissue layer called the |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| capillary structure has an outer basement membrane ECM (fibers) secreted by |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in the capillary structure, the lumen has the thickness of |
|
|
Term
2. Though small, there are many capillaries so their total volume is high and far exceeds the arteries.
3. Low area in the arteries causes high pressure. High area in capillaries causes low pressure. |
|
Definition
| Blood velocity decreases as it goes from thick arteries into thin capillaries. Why? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Pressure must be low in capillaries since they must be thin to
transmit substances between the blood and __. |
|
|
Term
A. heart pumping
B. contraction of smooth muscle
C. recoil of elastic connective tissue |
|
Definition
| blood flow in arteries is due to what |
|
|
Term
contraction of smooth muscle
contraction of skeletal muscle
expansion due to pressure change veins (near heart only) |
|
Definition
| blood flow in veins is due to what |
|
|
Term
| capillaries and interstitial fluid |
|
Definition
Osmotic pressure (OP) and blood pressure (BP) affect fluid exchange
btwn __ |
|
|
Term
1. BP low (far from heart).
2. OP high due to large proteins & RBCs in blood making [solute] higher than interstitial fluids.
3. Since OP>BP, interstitial fluid (H2O) + waste (CO2, NH3) flow from tissues into capillary due to osmosis |
|
Definition
| in the Venous end of capillary bed |
|
|
Term
1. BP>OP
2. Net flow of H2O, nutrients, O2 out of capillary into tissue |
|
Definition
| in the arteriole end of capillary bed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| H20 etc also returned to blood via __ system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| aka ‘Hardening of the arteries’ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Fibroblasts need Vitamin C to make connective tissue collagen fibers.
Deficiency damages connective tissue and leukocytes move in to repair
damage.
Leukocytes take up lipids, primarily cholesterol, which joins with fibers.
Altered fibers make CT stiff causing higher blood pressure. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cells suspended in liquid called plasma |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
water
ions
proteins
transported substances |
|
Definition
| what is plasma made up of |
|
|
Term
| Solvent for carrying other substances; it is 90% of plasma |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Osmotic balance, pH buffering, and regulation
of membrane permeability |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Osmotic balance, pH buffering, clotting,
immune defense |
|
|
Term
| transported substances in plasma |
|
Definition
Nutrients, waste products of
metabolism, respiratory gases (O2 and CO2), hormones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| erythrocytes (red blood cells) |
|
Definition
Transport oxygen and
help transport carbon dioxide |
|
|
Term
| leukocytes (white blood cells) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ found in red bone marrow (ribs, vertebrae, pelvis |
|
|
Term
| lymphoid and myeloid stem cells |
|
Definition
| Multipotent stem cell produces __ |
|
|
Term
| lymphocytes (immune system WBCs) |
|
Definition
| Lymphoid stem cells produce __ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ produce all other WBCs, RBCs, platelets |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Erythrocyte production controlled via __ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
__ O2 signal in kidney causes release of hormone erythropoietin which acts on stem cells to increase RBCs
__ O2 stops release of erythropoietin |
|
|
Term
1. Endothelium of blood vessel is damaged, exposing connective tissue (CT);
platelets adhere to collagen fibers of CT and release a substance
that makes nearby platelets sticky
2. Platelets form plug
3. If severe, plug reinforced by fibrin |
|
Definition
| what are the steps of blood clotting |
|
|
Term
1. clotting factors released from platelets and damaged cells
mix with clotting factors in the plasma.
2. Mixture causes the protein prothrombin to be converted (activates) to thrombin (an enzyme)
3. Thrombin converts fibrinogen (a soluble protein)
into fibrin (insoluble) |
|
Definition
| what are the steps to form fibrin |
|
|
Term
| The collection of organs, tissues and cells that coordinates, records and distributes information by electrical and chemical signals between the brain and other parts of the body allowing response to external stimuli and control of other organ systems. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Nervous system comprised of 2 general cell types
1. __ - Transfer information via electrochemical energy
2. __ - Support cells for neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| what are the three main parts of neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- bring electrical stimuli from other neurons
or sensory epithelial cells to the cell body.
- several to many per neuron |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
receives stimuli from dendrites or other neurons and
propagates to axon
- synthesizes some neurotransmitters (or neurohormones)
- contains nucleus and other cell organelles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
receives stimulus from cell body of neuron and
propagates signal to synapse
- only 1/ cell but distal end has several to many branches
(thus each neuron can contact many other neurons)
- synthesizes some neurotransmitters in synaptic terminals |
|
|
Term
other neurons
• muscle cells
• glands |
|
Definition
| Most neurons join via a synapse to what |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| narrow space between 2 cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __ pass info across synapse from pre- to postsynaptic cell (i.e. are a paracrine signal) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Some neurons (neurosecretory cells) transmit chemicals (neurohormones)
directly into the __ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Neurohormones enter __ vs. neurotransmitters are __ regulators |
|
|
Term
Neurotransmitters
neurohormones |
|
Definition
__ act on specific cells to which they have a synaptic
connection vs. __ act on many cells via circulatory system. |
|
|
Term
sensory
interneurons
motor
neurosecretory |
|
Definition
| what are the four functional types of neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
transmit info from external or internal sensors to the
brain (or ganglia) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Analyze and interpret sensory input
- Found exclusively within the spinal cord and brain
- Stimulated by sensory neurons, other interneurons or both
- Hundreds or more types of interneurons
- Have many more dendrites than other neuron types (~100k) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
– transmit signals to muscle and gland cells from
the brain (or ganglia)
- primarily stimulated by interneurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transmit chemicals into blood which act on distant targets |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Nerves may be:
__ - Only sensory neuron axons
__ - Only motor neuron axons
__ - Both motor and sensory neuron axons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Central Nervous System (CNS) = |
|
|
Term
| Cranial nerves + Spinal nerves + Ganglia |
|
Definition
| Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) = |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A dense cluster of interconnected neuron cell bodies that, depending on the
type, relay sensory (spinal ganglia) information to (afferent) or motor
outputs from (efferent) spinal cord. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the ganglion is __ than vertebrate brains and only contain neuron cell bodies not axons or dendrites |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the ganglion is in __ in vertebrates and in __ in invertebrates |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
originate in the brain and serve head and neck
- 12 pairs in humans and most vertebrates |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
originate in the spine and serve body below head
- 31 pairs in humans ~ corresponding to vertebral column segments
- Outside the vertebral column, each spinal nerve divides into
various branches |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Occur only in CNS
Support Cells for neurons
Several types with different functions
Anchor neurons
Improve nutrient deliver to neurons
Remove dead neurons
Form myelin sheath around axons
Schwann Cells (PNS)
Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
Circulate cerebrospinal fluid
10-50x abundance of neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
difference in electrical charge (voltage) across a
plasma membrane due to differential distribution of ions on each side of
membrane |
|
|
Term
Membrane potential – difference in electrical charge (voltage) across a
plasma membrane due to differential distribution of ions on each side of
membrane
Greater movement of ions across membrane in one or other direction generates
electrical energy (voltage) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| membrane potential of a nontransmitting neuron; -60 to -80 mV |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a change in a cell’s membrane potential
Occurs when the inside of the cell becomes less negative as compared to
the outside due to Na+ ions moving in (i.e. goes from -60mv to 0mv) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Charge difference btwn inside/ outside facilitated by selectively
permeable __ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
__: Na+/K+ pump creates different Na+ concentrations and K+ concentrations inside and outside cell
__: More K+ channels so movement of K+ out > Na+ in |
|
|
Term
| un-gated neuron ion channels |
|
Definition
| Always open; passive ion diffusion |
|
|
Term
| gated neuron ion channels |
|
Definition
Voltage-gated ion channels (VGIC)
Open or close due to change in membrane potential
Stimulus opens Na+ channel and ions flow in making inside less
negative (depolarization)
VGICs open in response to depolarization
Further depolarization causes more VGICs to open.
Rapid depolarization called “action potential” |
|
|
Term
| ligand-gated ion channels |
|
Definition
Open due to binding of chemical to ion channel (e.g. neurotransmitter)
Other less common channels respond to light, temp, pressure, stretch |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Rapid change in membrane potential
Triggered when depolarization allows the membrane potential (mV) to reach
a particular “threshold” value (-55mv in mammals) |
|
|
Term
1. resting state
2. depolarization
3. rising phase of action potential
4. falling phase of action potential
5. undershoot |
|
Definition
| what are the steps for transmission of impulse |
|
|
