Term
| What two things constrain animal shape and size? |
|
Definition
| physical laws and environment |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| reflects different species' independent adaptation to a similar environmental challenge |
|
|
Term
| What two things directly affect exchange of energy and materials with the environment? |
|
Definition
| size and shape (concept of surface-to-volume ratio) |
|
|
Term
| All living cells must be bathed in _________ _________. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the three things aqueous medium does for cells? |
|
Definition
1) maintains fluid integrity of membrane
2) contains nutrients/compounds that diffuse and are transported across the plasma membranes
3) carries away byproduct (waste) material |
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Term
| What are the four types of size vs. constraint body plans? Give an example of each. |
|
Definition
1) single-celled protist living in water (amoeba)
2) sac body plan (hydra)
3) flat body plan (flatworm)
4) complex body plan (humans) |
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Term
|
Definition
| groups of cells with a common structure and function |
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Term
| What are the four main categories of tissues? |
|
Definition
| epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous |
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Term
|
Definition
| functional unit; combinations of various tissues, make up organ systems |
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Term
|
Definition
- covers the outside of the body
- lines organs and cavities within the body
- closely joined cells
- cells (at base) attached to basement membrane |
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Term
|
Definition
| absorbs/secretes chemical solutions (mucous membranes: secrete mucus) |
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|
Term
| What are the primary functions of connective tissue? |
|
Definition
| bind and support other tissues |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- bind and support other tissues
- sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an ECM |
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|
Term
| What are the three types of proteinacous connective tissue fibers? |
|
Definition
1) collagenous: collagen, non-elastic
2) elastic: elastic, rubbery
3) reticular: collagen, branched, continuous with collagenous fibers; form "fabrics" |
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|
Term
| What are the six types connective tissue? |
|
Definition
1) loose connective tissue
2) adipose tissue
3) fibrous connective tissue
4) cartilage
5) bone
6) blood |
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|
Term
|
Definition
- binds epithelia to underlaying tissues (packing material/holds organs in place)
- two cell types predominate (fibroblasts & macrophages) |
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|
Term
| What are the two cell types that predominate in loose connective tissue? |
|
Definition
1) fibroblast - secretes ECM
2) macrophages - phagocytize bacteria; cell debris |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- specialized loose connective tissue
- insulates and stores fuel
- adipose cells contain fat droplets |
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|
Term
| fibrous connective tissue |
|
Definition
-dense (lots of collagenous fiber)
- fibers organized into parallel fibers (maximizes nonelastic strength)
- found in tendons and ligaments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- fibrous connective tissues
- attach muscle to bone |
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|
Term
|
Definition
- fibrous connective tissues
- join bone to bone (joints) |
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|
Term
| cartilage (connective tissue) |
|
Definition
- collagenous fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate matrix
- yields strength/flexibility
- has chondrocytes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| found in cartilage; cells that secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate |
|
|
Term
| What functions does cartilage serve? |
|
Definition
1) shark skeletons / skeletons of many vertebrate embryos
2) flexible support (nose, ears)
3) cushioning |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - mineralized connective tissue |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Osteoblasts secrete collagen matrix and the mineralization of matrix forms hydroxyapatite |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| unit of bone; hardened matrix around central canal (blood vessels/nerves) |
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|
Term
| blood (connective tissue) |
|
Definition
- different function than other connective tissue
- has extensive ECM (plasma)
- transport of nutrients, wastes, blood cells |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| water, salts, proteins (ECM of blood) |
|
|
Term
| What re the three blood cells? What do they do? |
|
Definition
1) erythrocytes (RBCs): carry oxygen
2) leukocytes (WBCs): defense
3) platelets: clotting |
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|
Term
|
Definition
- composed of long cells (muscle fibers)
- capable of contracting in response to nerve signals
- myofibrils: actin + myosin |
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of muscle tissue? |
|
Definition
1) skeletal
2) cardiac
3) smooth |
|
|
Term
| skeletal muscle (aka striated muscle) |
|
Definition
- attached to bones by tendons
- voluntary movement |
|
|
Term
| cardia muscle (striated muscle) |
|
Definition
- wall of the heart
- involuntary contraction
- intercalated disks: signal relay |
|
|
Term
| smooth muscle (not striated) |
|
Definition
- digestive tract, bladder, arteries
- contract more slowly
- involuntary (e.g. artery constriction) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -senses stimuli/transmits signals throughout the animal |
|
|
Term
| What is the functional unit of nervous tissue? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is a neuron and what does it processes? |
|
Definition
| functional unit of nervous tissue; a cell body; axon (transmits impulses toward effector) and dendrite (transmits impulses toward cell body) |
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|
Term
| Tissues are organized into _________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are organs suspended by? |
|
Definition
| mesentery (connective tissue sheets) in the body cavity |
|
|
Term
| Some organs have tissues arranged in _______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| carry out the major body functions of most animals, each system consists of several organs that have a specific function, coordination of system essentials |
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|
Term
| What two systems communicate messages throughout the body? How? How fast? |
|
Definition
1) nervous system: electrical signals, fast
2) endocrine system: chemical signals (hormones), slow |
|
|
Term
| What does the endocrine system depend on to get the message out? |
|
Definition
| the circulatory system (heart & blood vessels) |
|
|
Term
| All organisms require _________ energy. |
|
Definition
| chemical (for growth, repair, physiological processes, regulation, and reproduction) |
|
|
Term
| Energy use (and other functions) need to be __________ properly. How? |
|
Definition
| regulated; feedback loops |
|
|
Term
| What does the flow of energy through an animal ultimately limit? What does it determine? |
|
Definition
| the animals behavior, growth, and reproduction; how much food it needs |
|
|
Term
| Where do animals harvest chemical energy from? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| energy-containing molecules usually used to make ATP, which powers cellular work (via cellular respiration) |
|
|
Term
| After the energetic needs of staying alive are met what happens to the remaining molecule from food? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| energy-containing molecules usually used to make ATP, which powers cellular work (via cellular respiration) |
|
|
Term
| After the energetic needs of staying alive are met what happens to the remaining molecule from food? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| amount of energy used per unit time |
|
|
Term
| Metabolic energy is measured in ________. |
|
Definition
| calories (1kcal = 1000 cal) |
|
|
Term
| How is the metabolic rate determined? |
|
Definition
| measuring heat loss, oxygen consumption, etc |
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|
Term
| Metabolic rate is related to _________ ________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| use heat generated by metabolism to regulate body temperature (birds and mammals) |
|
|
Term
| Endothermic animals typically have ________ metabolic rates. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gain heat mostly from the environment (most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and non-bird reptiles) |
|
|
Term
| Ectothermic have _____ metabolic rates. |
|
Definition
| lower (does not contribute to body temperature) |
|
|
Term
| What kind of influences does size have on metabolic rate? |
|
Definition
| inversely related to body size among similar animals |
|
|
Term
| _____ and ______ influence metabolic rate. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| basal metabolic rate (BMR) |
|
Definition
| metabolic rate of an endotherm at rest |
|
|
Term
| standard metabolic rate (SMR) |
|
Definition
| metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest |
|
|
Term
| Any behavior consumes energy beyond ____/_____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- fibrous connective tissues
- attach muscle to bone |
|
|
Term
| Smaller animals have a ________ energy demand per unit weight. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Ectotherms have _____ energy than endotherm of equivalent size. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What three things does homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve? |
|
Definition
| form, function, and behavior |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| "steady state"; internal balance; interplay between environmental conidtions and an animal's internal control mechanisms that oppose changes imposed by those environmental conditions |
|
|
Term
| How do you cope with environmental fluctuations? |
|
Definition
| regulating and conforming |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in face of external, environmental fluctuation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes |
|
|
Term
| What are the mechanisms of homeostasis? |
|
Definition
1) receptor
2) control center
3) effector |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| detects environmental change |
|
|
Term
| control center (feedback) |
|
Definition
| process information received by the receptor; directs change in effector |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| makes physiological change to maintain homeostatsis |
|
|
Term
| Most homeostatic control systems function by _________ __________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| buildup o the end product of the system shuts the system off (dampens a response) |
|
|
Term
| A second type of homeostatic control system is _________ ___________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| involves a change in some variable that triggers mechanisms that amplify the change |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range |
|
|
Term
| In thermoregulation how do endotherms maintain an internal temperature? ectotherms? |
|
Definition
| metabolism; behavioral means |
|
|
Term
| In general, ectotherms tolerate ________ variation in internal temperature than endotherms. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the advantages of endothermy? |
|
Definition
- sustained vigorous activity
- maintenance of stable body temperature
- cooling mechanisms: with stand head loads |
|
|
Term
| What are the disadvantages of endothermy? |
|
Definition
- more energetically expensive thane ectothermy
- need for greater good consumption |
|
|
Term
| What four physical processes occur when organisms exchange heat? |
|
Definition
1) radiation
2) evaporation
3) conduction
4) convection |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transfers heat between objects that are not in direct contact (lizard absorbs radiated heat from the sun) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| removal of heat from the surface of a liquid (water from a lizard's moist surfaces i.e. face) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| direct transfer of heat between two objects by direct contact (lizard on a hot rock) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transfer of heat by the movement of air/liquid past a surface (wind cools lizard, blood moves heat from body core to extremities) |
|
|
Term
| Thermoregulation involves _________ and _______ adjustments, which allows balance of heat gain and loss. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the five strategies of thermoregulation of balancing heat loss/gain? |
|
Definition
1) insulation
2) circulatory adaptations
3) cooling by evaporative heat loss
4) behavioral responses
5) adjusting metabolic heat production |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- a major thermoregulatory adaptation in mammals and birds
- reduces the flow of heat between an animal and its environment
- includes feathers, fur, or blubber |
|
|
Term
| What are the two circulatory adaptations? |
|
Definition
1) alteration of blood flow between body core and skin
2) countercurrent heat exchangers |
|
|
Term
| alternation of blood flow between body core and skin |
|
Definition
(circulatory adaptation)
- many endotherms and some ectotherms
- vasodilation
- vasoconstriction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| blood flow in the skin increases, facilitating heat loss |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat loss |
|
|
Term
| countercurrent heat exchangers |
|
Definition
- specialized arrangement of blood vessels: reduce heat loss (transfer of heat between vessels)
- many mammals and birds; sharks; some fish |
|
|
Term
| cooling by evaporative heat loss |
|
Definition
- loss of heat through evaporation of water from skin
- sweating, panting, bathing |
|
|
Term
| countercurrent heat exchangers |
|
Definition
- specialized arrangement of blood vessels: reduce heat loss (transfer of heat between vessels)
- many mammals and birds; sharks; some fish |
|
|
Term
| cooling by evaporative heat loss |
|
Definition
- loss of heat through evaporation of water from skin
- sweating, panting, bathing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- movement to cooler/warmer areas (either locally or more extreme e.g. migration)
- changing posture |
|
|
Term
| adjusting metabolic heat production |
|
Definition
- moving/shivering (increased heat production)
- some mammals: nonshivering thermogenesis |
|
|
Term
| nonshivering thermogenesis |
|
Definition
- some mammals have this in adjusting metabolic heat production
- increase in mitochondrial metabolic activity (produces heat instead of ATP, controlled by hormones)
- brown adipose (fat) tissue: specialized for rapid heat production |
|
|
Term
| In mammals thermoregulation involves a complex __________ ________ system that involves several _______ _________. |
|
Definition
| negative feed back; organ systems |
|
|
Term
| In humans thermoregulation involves the ___________ possesses a group of nerve cells that function as a thermostat. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| torpor (energy conservation) |
|
Definition
-enables animals to save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions
- a physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases |
|
|
Term
| __________ is a long term torpor. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| long-term torpor; an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity during which the animal's body temperature declines |
|
|
Term
| estivation (summer torpor) |
|
Definition
| enables animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water supplies |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| exhibited by small mammals and birds, seems to be adapted to their feeing patterns |
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