Term
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Definition
| organisms (like plants) that use light energy from the sun to produce their own food – self-feeders |
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Term
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Definition
organisms (like animals and fungi) that get energy from the foods they consume
•Ex: herbivores: impalas eat grasses (autotrophs)
• Ex: carnivores: leopards eat impalas which eat grasses
•Ex: mushrooms obtain food by decomposing other organisms |
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Term
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Definition
Consists of:
Adenine
Ribose: a 5-carbon sugar
3 phosphate groups
adenosine triphosphate |
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Definition
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Definition
plants use sunlight’s energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars and starches and the byproduct oxygen
6 CO2 + 6 H2O= C6H12O6 + 6 O2 |
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Term
| light-dependent reactions |
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Definition
produce oxygen gas and convert ADP and NADP+ into the energy carriers ATP and NADPH
PS II and PS I
thylakoid membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| This enzyme splits the water and uses the electrons from the water to replace the electrons removed from the reaction center. Oxygen is produced in this process |
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Term
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Definition
| ADP passed through ATP synthase-- phosphorylated into ATP, released into stroma |
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Definition
| most of a plant’s gain in mass comes from water |
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Definition
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Definition
| light is necessary for plants to produce oxygen |
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Term
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Definition
| movement of units of light energy |
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Term
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Definition
| base unit of light, take on wave-like property |
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Term
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Definition
| distance from wave crest to crest |
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Definition
| number of crests that pass a fixed point in a given time |
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Definition
| height from baseline to crest |
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Definition
principal pigment of plants
chlorophyll a and b |
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Term
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Definition
light absorbing chemical that is specific to different wave lengths
photosynthesis takes pigment 680 and 700 |
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Term
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Definition
| occurs because photo receptors absorb only some wavelengths, photo receptors reflect color they can't absorb ex- plants can't absorb green so they grow best in blue-violet and red-orange light |
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Definition
| both male and female parts |
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Term
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Definition
Pedicel: where flower joins stem (sepals – leaves that cover the bud when closed – are on either side)
Stigma: sticky top (bugs can
stick to it for fertilizing w/pollen)
Ovary: has ovules in it
Style: neck between stigma |
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Term
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Definition
Anther: where pollen is produced (like sperm)
Stamen
Filament |
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Definition
Terminal bud scar: where last terminal bud was the last growing season
Axillary bud: grows branches off to side
Lenticel: opening (raised pore) that bring in CO2 |
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Definition
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Term
| Root Functions, Parts and Types |
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Definition
anchor the plant
take in water + nutrients (through ground or aerially)
take in gasses
reproduction (i.e. strawberries)
food storage
Tap root: main root
Fibrous root: moves out laterally from tap root to get water
Root hairs: extend from roots (like hairs) to bring in nutrients and water
Buttress roots
Knee roots
Pencil roots
Prop roots |
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Term
| Stems Functions and Parts |
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Definition
Provide structure
Provide transport
Store food (i.e. rhubarb and celery)
Hold leaves in sunlight
in stem takes water up the plant through capillary action
phloem transports food up stem
lenticel: porous opening in stem
xylem in stem takes water up the plant through capillary action
stomata: porous opening in lower epidermis, uses guard cells |
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Term
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Definition
take in gasses
release O2
carry on photosynthesis (in palisade layer)
can store food
direct water to roots with cuticle
transpiration: release of gasses or vapor through stomata: porous opening in leaf
palisade layer: beneath upper epidermis; where photosynthesis occurs (where the chlorophyll is)
spongy mesophyll: layer where gasses are stored in cross-section of leaf
chloroplasts |
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Term
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Definition
contain thylakoids: saclike photosynthetic membranes
arranged in stacks: grana (singular: granum)
proteins in the thylakoid membrane organize chlorophyll and other pigments into clusters: photosystems – the light-collecting units of the chloroplast
light-dependent reactions occur within the thylakoid membranes
light-independent reactions (aka the Calvin cycle) take place in the stroma: the region outside the thylakoid membranes
starch and oil droplets are stored in stroma
contain chlorophyll: plants’ principal pigment |
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Term
| Light-Independent Reaction: The Calvin Cycle |
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Definition
uses ATP, NADPH, CO2, RuBP to produce glucose
does not require light
stroma |
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Term
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Definition
the process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen.
6 O2 + C6H12O6 = 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ENERGY
net gain of 36 ATP
consists of Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, ETC |
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Term
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Definition
first phase of cellular respiration
Occurs in cytosol (in cytoplasm)
Anaerobic – no oxygen is needed
Breaks up glucose
produces pyruvate and 2 ATP |
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Term
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Definition
Occurs in matrix (space) of mitochondria
Aerobic – only occurs if oxygen is present after glycolysis
pyruvic acid broken into CO2 using acetyl-CoA
cycle happens twice
2 ATP produced |
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Term
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Definition
electron transport chain
uses high energy electrons to convert ADP into ATP
occurs on cristae
uses ATP synthase
32 ATP created |
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Term
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Definition
anaerobic cells only
releases energy from food by producing ATP in the absence of O2
2 types:
alcoholic- yeasts and bacteria
lactic- muscles |
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Term
| Respiratory System Function |
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Definition
To bring oxygen into the body
To release carbon dioxide as metabolic waste
To warm and moisten air brought into the body
To provide the ability to make sounds and speak |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| cavities in the skull where mucosa warm and moisten the air |
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Term
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Definition
back of throat
air passes through |
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Term
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Definition
| back of the throat, with the urula and tonsils |
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Term
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Definition
voicebox
Function: phonation
Vocal cords
Epiglottis at base |
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Term
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Definition
windpipe
Has C shaped cartilage rings
Is closed by the epiglottis to prevent food and liquid from entering the lungs
Extends from the larynx to the bronchi |
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Term
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Definition
2 lungs
left slightly smaller due to placement of the heart
right heart has 3 lobes, left has 2
lungs are covered by a membrane called the pleura
lungs are made up of millions of clusters of sac-like structures called alveoli
air flows from the bronchi to the bronchioles and into the alveoli for gas exchange |
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Term
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Definition
| muscular wall that separates thorax from the abdomen. When the diaphragm is down, ribcage goes up (pulled by intercostals muscles), you inhale; when the diaphragm is up, you exhale. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| air that stays in lungs and keep alveoli partially inflated |
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Term
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Definition
| maximum inhalation + a second inhalation without exhalation |
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Term
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Definition
| vital air capacity + residual air |
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Term
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Definition
| chemical in muscle that stores oxygen |
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Term
| Circulatory System Functions |
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Definition
To circulate oxygen and nutrients to the cells
To remove metabolic wastes from the cells
To circulate hormones throughout the body
To facilitate immune response
To maintain body’s internal environment
Body temp
Ph (around 7) |
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Term
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Definition
Located in the mediastinum of the thoracic cavity, posterior to the sternum and anterior to the thoracic vertebrae
2/3 of heart’s mass is to the left of the midline of the body
Has 3 layers:
endocardium: inside layer – is in contact with the blood passing through the heart
myocardium: middle layer – thick muscular layer which gives the heart the strength of its contraction
epicardium: outer layer – in contact with the pericardium
pericardium: sack that surrounds the heart
double-layered membrane
outer layer surrounds the roots of the heart’s major blood vessels and is attached by ligaments to the spinal column, diaphragm, and other parts of the body
inner layer is attached to the epicardium: heart muscle
a coating of fluid separates the 2 layers of membrane, letting the heart move as it beats, yet still be attached to the body
Has 4 chambers:
Atria: 2 upper receiving chambers
Right side: receives deoxygenated blood from the body through the vena cava
Left side: receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through the pulmonary vein
Ventricles: 2 lower pumping chambers
Right side: pumps deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary artery to the lungs
Left side: pumps oxygenated blood through the aorta to the body
Pumping is a result of the heart muscle contracting
The heart valves
Tricuspid valve:
is between right atrium and right ventricle
regulates blood flow between the right atrium and right ventricle
Bicuspid/mitral valve:
is between left atrium and left ventricle
lets oxygen-rich blood from lungs pass from the left atrium into the left ventricle
The vessel valves (semi-lunar valves)
Pulmonary valve
prevents blood flow back into the right ventricle
controls blood flow from the right ventricle into the pulmonary arteries, which carry blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen
Aortic valve:
prevents blood flow back into the left ventricle
opens the way for oxygen-rich blood to pass from the left ventricle into the aorta, the body’s largest artery, where it is delivered to the rest of the body
the cusps or flaps of the valves are pulled open by the chordae tendonae, which are anchored in papillae: mounds of tissue on the inside wall of the heart
Right side of the heart: responsible for pulmonary circulation, pumps to the lungs
Left side of the heart: responsible for circulation to the rest of the body and head (systemic)
Septum: thick wall that separates the side |
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Term
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Definition
“Cardiac Cycle”
2 components
contraction phase: systole
first aorta and then ventricles contract to force blood out of the chambers
is the pressure against artery walls during contraction
this pressure is affected by volume of blood, viscosity, and resistance
relaxation phase: diastole
the atria and ventricles are relaxed and the atrioventricular valves are open
is the pressure remaining in arteries during rest
this pressure is a function of heart rate, vessel compliance, and peripheral blood flow
normal: 120 mm (systole) / 80 mm (diastole) |
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Term
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Definition
right atrium
tricuspid valve
right ventricle
semilunar valve
pulmonary artery
lungs
pulmonary vein
left atrium
mitral aka micuspid vlave
left ventricle
different semilunar valve
aorta
arteries
arterioles
capillary
venules
veins
head - superior vena cava or body -inferior vena cava
back to right atrium |
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Term
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Definition
• take blood away from heart
• have oxygen in them blood in them is bright red-orange (besides pulmonary artery)
• slightly elastic walls which push blood forward
• thick walls stay open when empty
• have a pulse
• have larger lumen than veins |
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Term
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Definition
• take blood to heart
• no oxygen burgundy (besides pulmonary vein)
• extremely elastic
• collapse when empty
• have valves
• no pulse
• thinner walls than arteries |
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Term
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Definition
o capillary diameter = 1 red blood cell
o no body cell is more than a couple cell diameters away from a capillary
o capillaries have holes in their membranes which are selective to what goes in and out
o all capillaries can pass oxygen, carbon dioxide, small ions, glucose
o brain capillaries have low permeability except for essentials and lipid soluble materials
alcohol is lipid soluble |
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Term
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Definition
o fluid of life: transports oxygen from lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to lungs
o fluid of growth: transports water and nourishment from digestion and transports hormones from glands that will regulate growth and development
o fluid of health: transports disease-fighting substances to the tissue and waste to the kidneys |
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Term
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Definition
straw-colored liquid in which the blood cells are suspended
maintains ph, body temp
transports materials needed by the cells and materials that must be removed from the cells:
• minerals, nutrients, dissolved gasses
• various ions
• glucose and traces of other sugars
• amino acids
• other organic acids
• cholesterol and other lipids
• hormones
• urea and other wastes |
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Term
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Definition
erthrocytes
transport respiratory gases (O2, CO2)
produced in red bone marrow in long bones
no nucleus
for gas exchange
lifespan: approximately 120 days
as they age, their membranes get fragile will eventually rupture when they go through capillaries; become trapped in the spleen spleen captures most old RBCs, they are recycled in spleen
hemoglobin pigments make them red |
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Term
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Definition
leukocytes, the buffy coat
fight infection
kill parasites
immunity
phagocytize viruses/bacteria
thin blood
cause allergic reactions |
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Term
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Definition
| play an important role in our immune response. T-lymphocytes act against virus-infected cells and tumor cells. B-lymphocytes produce antibodies. |
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Term
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Definition
thrombocytes
used in clotting |
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Term
| Digestive System Function |
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Definition
| the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food and the absorption of nutrients by cells |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| chewed clump of food, mucus, and saliva formed against the hard palate using the tongue and teeth during mastication |
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Term
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Definition
| swallowing of food or drink |
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Term
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Definition
| normal swallowing of air during eating/drinking/speaking |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| parotid gland (large), submandibular gland, sublingual gland |
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Term
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Definition
| enzyme in saliva which breaks down the chemical bonds in starches and releases sugar |
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Term
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Definition
o Narrow tube
o Collapsed when empty
o For peristalsis: wave-like contractions of smooth muscle that cause food to travel down the esophagus |
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Term
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Definition
o Digests proteins
o J-shaped
o Located in the upper left side of the abdomen
o About 10 inches long, and can expand to hold up to 1 quart of food
o is where some medications and alcohol are absorbed |
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Term
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Definition
mucosa- secrete acid
submucosa
muscular layer- mix food
serosa |
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Term
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Definition
• Accessory organ: contributes to digestion, but does not come into direct contact with the food
• Largest organ by mass
• Produces bile:
o Emulsifier: emulsifies large fat globules into smaller ones more easily digested by pancreatic lipase
o Green because of the biliverden pigment
o Extremely bitter
• Breaks down old blood cells for recycling
• Has right, middle, and left lobes
o gall bladder (small, pouchlike organ that stores bile) is embedded in right lobe
o hepatic ducts come from middle and left lobes
o bile leaves the gall bladder through the cystic duct and leaves the liver through the hepatic ducts. The cystic and hepatic ducts join to form the common bile duct, which enters the duodenum, where the bile is released |
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Term
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Definition
• double gland
• ½ is ductless – the Islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas containing its endocrine (i.e. hormone-producing) cells
o produce pancreatic endocrine hormones which help regulate many aspects of our metabolism
insulin: stimulates sugar uptake
glycagon: converts glycogen to glucose
• ½ has ducts – exocrine
o produce pancreatic digestive enzymes
• pancreatic lipase breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids
• pancreatic amylase continues the breakdown of starches and most other carbohydrates into disaccharides
• trypsin and erepsin: break down whole and partially digested proteins (proteoses and peptones) into amino acids, the end products of digestion
• also produces sodium bicarbonate |
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Term
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Definition
tubular organ
receives secretions from pancreas and liver
completes digestion of nutrients
3 parts: duodenum, jejunum, ileum
filled with villi |
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Term
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Definition
re-absorbs water
passes along undigested material through rectum and anus
haustra that hold bacteria |
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Term
| Decomposers (aka saprobes) |
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Definition
heterotrophs that recycle dead organisms by breaking them down
Plant-like saprobe = saprophyte |
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Definition
| draws blood from another organism |
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Term
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Definition
| science of grouping and naming organisms |
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Term
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Definition
| the grouping of information or objects based on similarities |
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Term
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Definition
2-name system for writing scientific names
Genus is capitalized and written first
species is not capitalized and written second
both words are italicized if typed or underlined if handwritten |
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Definition
| the evolutionary history of an organism that is the cornerstone of a branch of bio called systematic taxonomy (systematics) |
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Term
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Definition
| study of the evolution of biological diversity |
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Term
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Definition
| family tree that shows a hypothesis about the evolutionary relationships thought to exist among groups of organisms – it does not show the actual evolutionary history of organisms |
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Term
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Definition
fossil record, morphology, homologous/analogous structures,
embryological patterns, chromosomes and DNA, vestiges, proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| modifies homologous structures |
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Term
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Definition
when animals have evolved similar adaptations for obtaining food because they occupy similar niches
Leads to analogous structures: traits that are morphologically and functionally
similar even though there is no common ancestor |
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Term
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Definition
a relatively new system of phylogenetics that uses shared derived characters (features that apparently evolved only within the group under consideration) to establish to establish evolutionary relationships
3 basic assumptions:
1. Organisms within a group are descended from a common ancestor
2. There is a bifurcating pattern of cladogenesis
3. Change in characteristics occurs in lineages over time |
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Term
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Definition
| device for easily and quickly identifying an unknown organism; the most widely used type in bio sciences – user is presented with a sequence of choices between 2 statements (couplets) based on characteristics of the organism. By always making the correct choice, the name of the organism will be revealed. |
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Term
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Definition
• includes newly discovered cell types
• contains 1 kingdom: archaebacteria |
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Term
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Definition
• includes other members of the old kingdom Monera
• had 1 kingdom: Eubacteria |
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Term
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Definition
• includes all kingdoms composed of organisms made up of eukaryotic cells
o protista
o fungi
o animalia
o plantae |
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Term
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Definition
kingdoms are divided into groups called phyla
phyla are subdivided into classes
classes are subdivided into orders
orders are subdivided into families
families are divided into genera
genera contain closely related species
species are unique
KINGS PLAY CHESS ON FUNNY GREEN SQUARES |
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Term
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Definition
| structures that no longer function the way they were supposed to |
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Term
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Definition
evidence of existence/remnant/remain
1. Hard: teeth, bone, shells, scales
2. Imprint: tracks/impressions in sedimentary rock (most are plants in river basins)
3. Cast: 3D, organism was there, died, and decomposed in rock fill hole with plaster of paris to recreate what was there
4. Resin: amber insects, tar saber tooth tiger (found in La Brea, California)
5. Refrigeration: organisms preserved in ice |
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Term
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Definition
vertebrates that (with some exceptions) live in water as larvae and on land as adults, breathe with lungs as adults, have moist skin that contains mucous glands, and lacks scales and claws
• tetrapods, cold-blooded
• no amniotic egg, oviparous
• adaptations for part of lives outside water:
o stronger bones in limbs and limb girdles more efficient movement
o lungs and breathing tubes breathe air
o sternum (breastbone) formed bony shield to protect internal organs esp. lungs
o they got a copulatory organ, which is like a penis, for internal fertilization
• larval
o herbivores/filter feeders
o respiration through skin and gills
• adults
o shorter intestine, carnivorous, eat insects
o lungs (except many salamanders)
• cloaca: muscular cavity through which digestive wastes, urine, eggs/sperm leave body
• circulatory system:
o 3-chambered heart
o double loop
o some mixing of oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood
• no claws
• nictitating mebrane protects eye from damage and keeps moist
• tympanic membranes = eardrums
• 3 groups
o salamanders: Urodela
long bodies and retain tails as adults
larvae and adults are carnivores
o frogs and toads: Anura
jump
adults lack tails
males have big thumbs
may have disks or suckers on digits
vomerine teeth: point backwards for grasping insects
tongue attached at front, flips out
o caecilians: Apoda
legless
many have fishlike scales embedded in their skin
earlier tetrapods were specialized fish which
• occupied shallow ponds
• breathed air by gulping
• developed lobed walking fins for moving from one pond to another |
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Term
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Definition
: vertebrates that have dry, scaly skin, lungs, and terrestrial eggs with several membranes
• Live mainly out of water
• Dry skin covered with thick, protective scales of keratin helps prevent loss of water in dry environments – however, must be shed for growth
• Can live anywhere besides very cold areas
• First vertebrates to develop adaptation – copulatory organ – which gave them a way to reproduce without depositing eggs into water
• Adapted to life on land:
o Scaly skin
Scutes: external plate or scale, on carapace of turtle shell or underside of snake for movement
o Well-developed lungs
Spongy lungs more surface area (since can’t diffuse through skin)
o 4-chambered heart + double-loop circulatory system in crocodiles
o 3-chambered heart in other reptiles
o Water-conserving excretory system
Urine produced in kidneys
Urine contains ammonia (live in water) or uric acid (live on land)
cloaca
o Strong limbs
o Internal fertilization
o Shelled, terrestrial eggs: leathery amniotic egg
Shell forms around egg in reproductive tract
4 membranes
• amnion, yolk sac, chorion, allantois
• function in gas exchange, waste storage, and transfer of nutrients
• develop from tissues derived in the embryo
create protected environment for egg to develop without drying out
• allowed vertebrates to sever the link with water and live their lives on land
• Ectotherms: rely on behavior/outside environment to control body temperature
• Herbivores, carnivores, many eat insects
• 4 types:
o lizards and snakes: Squamata
legs, clawed toes, external ears, movable eyelids
snakes lost their legs during evolution (vestigial pelvic and limb bones)
o crocodilians: Crocodilia
long and typically broad snout, squat appearance
tropics and subtropics
most closesly related to dinosaurs
o turtles and tortoises: Testudines
turtle on water
tortoise on land
all lay eggs on land
horny ridges on upper and lower jaws
strong limbs
shell built into skeleton
• dorsal part: carapace
• ventral part: plastron
o tuatara: Sphenodonta
like lizards, but no external ears and have primitive scales
“third eye” |
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Term
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Definition
reptile-like animals that maintain a constant internal body temperature, have an outer covering of feathers, have 2 legs covered with scales and used for walking or perching, and front limbs modified into wings
• amniotic egg
• endotherms
• feathers:
o made of protein
o flight
o warmth
o down – layer of small, fluffy feathers under outer layer, warmth
o contour – outer feathers
o filoplume – hairlike
o apteria: no feathers on head
o pterylae: tracts from which feathers develop
• adaptations for flight:
o highly efficient digestive, circulatory, and respiratory systems
air sacs: inhaled air air sacs lungs: 1 direction maintain high metabolic rate
no bladder
4-chambered hearts and 2 separate circulatory loops
• 2 separate ventricles (unlike amphibian or reptile)
o aerodynamic feathers and wings
o strong, lightweight bones (honeycombed skeleton)
o toothless for weight reduction
o strong chest muscles
o acute vision
• endotherms: generate their own heat
• eat much more than reptiles/amphibians, beaks/bills adapted to type of food eaten
• crop: food moistened
• gizzard: grinding insects/seeds
• cloaca
• theropods = closest dinosaur relative of birds
• flightless birds = ratites |
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Term
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Definition
• have hair
• have ability to nourish their young with milk
o females have mammary glands which produce milk to nourish their young
• breathe air
o lungs
o when you inhale: muscles in chest lift rib cage up + out more volume in chest cavity; diaphragm muscle simultaneously pulls bottom of chest cavity downward more volume
• have 4-chambered hearts
o 2-loop circulatory system
o 1 to/from lungs, 1 to/from rest of body
• endotherms (like birds)
o high rate of metabolism helps generate body heat
o external body hair keeps warm
o subcutaneous fat also helps keep body warm
o homeostasis in body temperature control: sweating, panting, also allows movement in cold when other animals would seek shelter
• feed much more than reptiles/amphibians
• highly-developed kidneys help maintain homeostasis by filtering urea from blood, and excrete excess water or retaining needed water
• jaws and teeth became adapted to eat non-insect foods through evolution
o joint between skull and lower jaw became stronger
o modern mammals have specialized teeth – differentiation
o many herbivores have rumen stomach chamber for storing/processing newly swallowed plant food
• most highly developed brains of any animals
o 3 main parts: cerebrrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata
o cerebrum has outer layer: cerebral cortex, which is center of thinking and other complex behaviors
• highly developed sensory organs
• have endocrine glands (like other vertebrates) which regulate body activities by releasing hormones
• adaptations for movement
o backbone flexes both vertically and side-to-side
• reproduce by internal fertilization
o newborns feed on mother’s milk
o often maternal and paternal care
• 3 types, mainly classified by the way they reproduce and develop, though also categorized by the number of bones in their heads and their tooth structure
o Monotremes lay eggs
Share 2 notable characteristics with reptiles
• Digestive, reproductive, and urinary systems all open into a cloaca similar to reptiles’ cloacas
• Like reptiles, female lays soft-shell egg which are incubated outside her body – however, young monotremes are nourished by their mother’s milk
3 exist today: duck-billed platypus, 2 species of spiny anteaters
o Marsupials bear live young, but at a very early stage of development
Live young normally complete their development in an external pouch
Embryo born very early crawls and attaches to mother’s nipple (most nipples in pouch called marsupium)
Kangaroos, koalas, wombats
o Placental mammal exchange nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and wastes between embryo and mother through the placenta
Placenta: internal structure formed when embryo’s tissues join with tissues from within the mother’s body
Mice, dogs, whales, elephants, humans, sea lions
• Primates
o Binocular vision
Flat face eyes face forward w/ overlapping fields of vision depth perception
o Well-developed cerebrum
Display more complex behaviors than many other mammals
Complex social behavior
o Relatively long fingers and toes
Flexible, normally 5 digits
o Arms that can rotate around their shoulder joints climbing
o Hominid family includes modern humans
Bipedal motion: walking on 2 legs; eyes set higher can see farther
opposable thumbs grasping/using tools
humans have shorter jaw flatter face and large brain development of language and social behavior
extended family care changes family structure and enhances learning and social behavior |
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Term
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Definition
• Embryos all have common structure: notochord
o Flexible rod between digestive tube and nerve cord
o Provides skeletal support
o In most vertebrates, it’s replaced by a jointed skeleton
o Remains of the notochord exist as disks between the vertebrae
• Dorsal, hollow nerve cord
o Develops into the brain and spinal cord of the adult
• Pharyngeal slits
o Water enters through the mouth and passes out through the slits in the pharynx, without going through the digestive system
o Slits function as suspension-feeding devices in many invertebrate chordates
o Slits have been modified in more evolved vertebrates for:
Gas exchange
Hearing
Jaw support
• Postanal tail
o Provides propulsion for swimming
Invertebrate chordates provide clues to the origin of vertebrates
• Subphylum Urochordata (Tunicates):
o adult is sessile and filter-feeds via pharyngeal slits
o adult does not have notochord nor tail
o larva has all chordate features
o invertebrates
• Subphylum Cephalochordata (Lancelets):
o adult form shows chordate features and feed and swim
o has mouth
o live on ocean floor
o vertebrates |
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Definition
jawless fishes
• no true teeth or jaws
• no vertebrae keep notochords as adults
• lampreys:
o filter feeders as larva, parasites as adults off other fishes
o head: circular sucking disc with round mouth in center
• hagfishes:
o pinkish gray wormlike bodies
o 4 or 6 tentacles around mouth
o fed on dead and ding fish |
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Definition
skeletons built out of cartilage, not bone
• sharks
o have many teeth
o elastic jaw hinge
• rays – triangle-shaped
• skates – diamond-shaped
• uncommon fishes: sawfishes, chimaeras
• have placoid scales: made of cartilage |
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Definition
bony fishes
• most ray-finned
• some lobe-finned
• have bony scales and mucus
• have operculum |
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| Fish adaptations for water |
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Definition
| air bladder, caudal fin, pharyngeal slits, fins, gills, types of scales, types of eyes, nostrils, suction on the mouth, sensory nerves |
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Definition
| manure/excretion from worms |
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| evolutionary trend where nervous tissue becomes concentrated towards one end of an organism |
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| feeding by filtering food particles from water |
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Definition
| has both male and femal sex organs |
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| digestion of food inside cells |
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Definition
| food is broken down outside the cells in a digestive cavity or tract and then absorbed into the body |
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| feathery structures rich in blood vessels that expose a large surface area to the water |
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Definition
| parallel, sheetlike layers of thin tissues that contain blood vessels, used for respiration |
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| animal with no body cavity |
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Definition
| animal whose body cavity is partly lied with mesoderm |
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| animal whose body cavity is fully lined with mesoderm |
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| fluid-filled body cavity surrounded and supported by muscles |
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| hard body covering – less flexible, harder to grow (has to molt several times, during which inner body is vulnerable while new exoskeleton grows) |
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| structural support inside body |
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Definition
| fertilization inside the body of the female |
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| fertilization outside the body of the female |
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| animal whose blastopore develops into its anus |
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| animal whose blastopore develops into its mouth |
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| marine annelid with appendages |
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| fluid-filled body cavity lined with mesoderm tissue |
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| groups of nerve cells that control the nervous system |
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| type of annelid that includes the earthworm |
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| single-shelled mollusk that moves using its muscular foot |
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| network of branching tubes which extend throughout the body |
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| paired appendages used for sensing |
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| Within a species, a group of individuals in which mates are usually found. |
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Definition
• Changes in the frequency of genes over time in a population.
• change in the properties of populations of organisms that transcend the lifetime of a single individual.
• changes in populations that are considered evolutionary are those that are inheritable via the genetic material from one generation to the next.
• explains all of the changes that transformed life from its earliest beginnings to the diversity of life that exists today |
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Term
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Definition
change in the gene pool of a population over successive generations;
Small changes in the frequency of alleles in a population which take place in a relatively short period of time. Evolution of viral or bacterial proteins is often referred to as microevolution.
• Generation-to-generation change in a population’s allele frequencies
• Causes:
o Natural selection
o Genetic drift
• Is a response to natural selection
• Natural selection acts on an individual in one generation, and the result is the evolution of the population between generations |
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Term
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Definition
large-scale evolutionary patterns and processes that occur over long periods of time. 6 topics of macroevolution are extinction, adaptive radiation, convergent evolution, coevolution, punctuated equilibrium, and changes in developmental genes.
• Speciation and formation of new lineages
• Species change over time as they adapt to their environments
o i.e. giraffe’s neck
• Extant species arose from earlier forms
o i.e. homologous structures – human arm, cat leg, whale fin, bat wing
• Evolutionary history is a branching Tree of Life |
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Definition
| some closely connected organisms who interact with each other may evolve with each other – an evolutionary change in one organism could be followed by a corresponding change in another organism. Coevolution is when 2 species evolve in response to changes in each other over time |
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| Relatively rapid expansion and diversification of an evolving group of organisms as they adapt to new niches. A good example of this is the “Darwin’s finches” on the Galapagos Islands. |
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Definition
| accumulation of differences between 2 similar species which can lead to the formation of a new species |
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Term
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Definition
| sometimes very different organisms undergo adaptive radiation in different places or times but under similar environments. They start out from very different points, with different ancestors, but similar environmental pressures may cause natural selection to form structures that are similar in the separate species, so that they come to resemble each other. |
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Definition
| species with similar ancestors develop similar traits |
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Definition
| long, stable periods of relatively little or no change interrupted by brief periods of more rapid change. This may happen when a small population gets isolated from the main population, so genetic changes spread faster among fewer individuals, or it may happen when a small group of organisms migrates to a new environment. |
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| biological change is slow and steady |
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| evolution when individuals at the upper and lower ends of the curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle of the curve, selection acts most strongly against individuals of an intermediate type. If the selection pressure is strong and lengthy enough, the curve can split into 2 distinct phenotypes. (i.e. only small and large seeds available, medium-beaked birds have trouble) |
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Definition
| when individuals near the center of the curve have higher fitness than individuals at either end of the curve, the center of the curve remains the same, but the overall graph narrows (i.e. small babies unhealthy, large babies hard to give birth to) |
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Definition
| when individuals at one end of the curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end, the range of phenotypes shifts (i.e. there are only large seeds available, large-beaked birds will do well) |
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Definition
| evolutionary event in which a significant percentage of a population or species is killed or otherwise prevented from reproducing – increases genetic drift |
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Definition
process by which new species are produced from previously existing species—happens through reproductive isolation: as new species evolve, populations become reproductively isolated from each other, until they can’t interbreed and produce fertile offspring – they have separate gene pools
• Behavioral isolation: 2 populations are capable of interbreeding but have differences in courtship rituals or other behavior-involved reproductive strategies, so they will not mate with each other
• Geographic isolation: 2 populations are separated by geographic barriers until they can’t interbreed and produce fertile offspring
• Temporal isolation: 2 or more species reproduce at different times, i.e. orchids release pollen on different days |
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Definition
| • Gradualism: features and changes in the physical world are the cumulative product of slow but continuous geological processes |
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Definition
| • Uniformitarianism: these continuous geological processes are still occurring the same today as they did in the past |
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Definition
• 1798 published An Essay on the Principles of Population
• struggle for existence
• if the human population continued to grow unchecked, sooner or later there would be insufficient living space and food for everyone
• majority of species’ offspring die |
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Definition
• 1749: coined the term “Natural History”
• change in nature
• organisms adapt
• no speciation |
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| Lamarck’s theory of evolution |
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Definition
• life evolved along with the evolution of the earth – gradualism
• tendency toward perfection: innate tendency toward greater complexity and more “perfect” adaptation
• use and disuse: organisms could alter the size and shape of particular organs by using their bodies in new ways
• inheritance of acquired traits
• Mendel’s laws of genetics disproved this theory, but it was very influential at the time |
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Definition
• father of paleontology
• each stratum of rock is characterized by a unique group of species
• introduced concept of extinction
• catastrophism: periodic catastrophic events destroy most species in local extinctions, repopulated by migration or new creation |
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Term
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Definition
• Hardy-Weinberg Principle: allele frequencies in a population will remain constant unless one or more factors cause those frequencies to change.
• Genetic equilibrium is when all the allele frequencies remain constant the population will not evolve. 5 conditions for maintaining genetic equilibrium:
o Random mating
o Population must be very large
o No movement into or out of the population
o No mutations
o No natural selection |
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Term
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Definition
• proposed that species can change (evolve) over time via natural selection
• 1859: published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
• A.R. Wallace also developed a theory of natural selection at the same time, collaborated with C.S.
• Struggle for existence:
o most species produce more offspring than can be supported by the environment
o environmental resources are limited
o high birth rates + shortage of life’s basic needs competition for resources |
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Term
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Definition
o Fitness: ability of an animal to survive and reproduce in its specific environment
Fitness is the result of adaptations
o Those with the highest fitness survive and reproduce more successfully |
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Definition
o individuals within a population are phenotypically variable
o those differences can influence how well they acquire resources (food, shelter, mates, etc.) and therefore can affect their survival and reproductive success
o evolutionary factor which causes changes in allele frequencies in populations due to differential net reproductive success of individuals with different alleles
o There is a struggle for survival there are way too many offspring produced that can possibly survive to adulthood
o Survival is not random – phenotypic differences influence how individuals perform
o Differential reproduction: Individuals better adapted to the environment leave more offspring than those lacking these favorable traits
o Leads to a change in the population with the accumulation of more suitable versions of traits (slightly faster hunters, slightly thicker bills, etc.)
o Over time, new species evolve IF there is a heritable basis to the phenotypic variation – this can be very rapid
o Natural selection acts at the level of the individual, but populations are the smallest unit that can evolve
o Individuals pass on more or fewer genes depending on their reproductive success
o Natural selection only works on heritable variations, not acquired traits
o Natural selection can only work on existing phenotypic variation. Variation is produced by chance mutations and the best phenotype for a given time and place survives (or leaves more offspring than others)
o Natural selection is context-dependent in a given environment at a given time and place. There is no movement toward some ideal organisms. Adaptations in one place or time may not be useful in another |
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Term
| Descent with Modification |
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Definition
o Over long periods, natural selection produces organisms that have different structures, establish different niches, and occupy different habitats
o So, species today look different from their ancestors
o Each living species has descended, with changes, from other species over time
o Implies common descent: all species living and distinct are evolved from common ancestors single tree of life
• most populations are stable in size
• individuals vary greatly in their characteristics (phenotypes)
• gradualism
• if this variation could be passed from parent to offspring (aka is heritable), then future generations would be better suited to the environment than the parental generation was (Darwin did not know about genetics – he was unaware of Mendel’s work) |
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| total amount of living tissue within a given trophic level |
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| scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment – all living and nonliving things affect each other |
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Definition
| the role where it feeds, is a producer, predator, scavenger, etc. – full range of physical and biological conditions in which an organism lives and the way in which the organism uses those conditions |
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| the area where an organism lives |
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| organisms blend in with their surroundings to remain hidden from predators |
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Definition
| serves to convey a message of avoidance to potential predators |
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Definition
adapting coloration of a more dangerous species to avoid being preyed upon – of great benefit to the mimic
Batesian mimicry harmless animal imitates a dangerous one
Muellerian mimicry 2 or more dangerous species evolve similar color patterns |
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Definition
| series of predictable changes that occur in a community over time – natural and human disturbances cause change in ecosystems, resulting in older inhabitants moving out and new inhabitants moving in. For example, smaller, less competitive plants often get replaced by larger, more competitive plants, which take up all the water from the ground and shade the smaller ones. This plant succession determines which animals live there. |
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Definition
| the succession that occurs on land where no soil exists – i.e. on surfaces formed from volcanic eruptions or bare rock exposed by a melted glacier. The first species to populate the area is the pioneer species. On volcanic rock, the pioneer species are often lichens, which are made of 2 species living together and helping each other (mutualism): a fungus and an alga. They can grow on bare rock. They break up the rocks as they grow, and when hey die they add organic material to help form soil from which plants can grow. The pioneer species can also be plants from seeds carried by wind, water, or in the guano (bird shit) or on feathers or fur of animals. |
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Definition
| when natural events (i.e. fires) or human events (i.e. farming) can change components of an ecosystem. When the disturbance is over, community interactions tend to restore the ecosystem to its original condition through secondary succession. The soil already exists, so succession quickly resumes and rebuilds the area. The pioneer plants after disturbances during secondary succession are mosses, grasses, and weeds. |
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Definition
| ecologists used to think that succession in a given area always went through the same predictable steps to reach a stable climax community – i.e. old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest. Healthy ecosystems usually recover from natural disturbances, but long-term human disturbances may not allow ecosystems to recover. It is the last or final stage of succession in a community, often called “old growth”, i.e. Douglas Fir and Red Cedar in Pacific Northwest. |
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Definition
| the largest number of individuals that a given environment can support |
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Definition
| the rate at which a population would grow if every new individual survived to adulthood and reproduced at its maximum capacity. Most organisms produce more offspring than can survive to grow up and reproduce. They do this to endure that some survive to breeding age. |
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| organisms that obtain food from decaying organic matter (many fungi) |
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Definition
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Term
| Density-dependent variable |
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Definition
| variable a limiting factor that depends on population size – they operate most strongly on populations that are large and dense. i.e. intraspecifc competition (same organisms competing for food), predation, parasitism, build up of toxic wastes, and disease |
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Term
| Density-independent variable |
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Definition
| limiting factors which affect all populations in similar ways, regardless of population size – i.e. unusual weather, natural disasters, seasonal cycles, and certain human activities (damming rivers, clear-cutting forests) |
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