[image]

makes liquid volume measurements

[image]

holds and works with liquids

[image]

measures the mass of an object

1. Accurate observation - quantify

2. Infer from observation -hypothesis

3. Test the hypothesis - Experimentation

4. Conclusion

1. complete and detailed

2. quantified, measured

3. repeatable

4. used for prediction

- permeable membrane on the outside of plasma membrane

supports, protects

chloroplast

leukplast

chromoplastid

- contains water, sugars, ions, and pigments

- large: helps increase the surface area to volume ratio by applying pressure to the membrane (pushing it outward) support

-4-6 M

- bound by a double membrane

- captures solar energy to make carbos

- have their own DNA and ribosomes and can make certain proteins

- reproduce themselves by division

- .5-1.0 M x 7 M in length

- double membrane

- inner space filled with gel like fluid containing an enzyme to break down carbos

* - carbos. chemical energy can be converted to ATP (the energy in our bodies that is needed to do everything)

- contain their own DNA and ribosomes and can produce some proteins

- reproduce by division

1. Proteins are made in the rough ER

2. The proteins are placed in vesicles.

3. Proteins are transported to golgi apparatus

4. Modifies and sorts the proteins

5. Package them back into the vesicles

6. Goes to the plasma membrane to be released by exocytosis

- hydrocarbon tails wiggle

- (can even change places with neighbor making the cell pliable - flexible)

- cholesterol hardens hydrocarbon tails making membrane more impermeable and less flexible

- acts as channels where molecules can pass

- some act as pumps, pushing molecules from one side to another

- some attach to enzymes to speed up chemical reactions

- some attach to carbo, chains on outer surface as chemical ID Tags

- others act as receptors for chemical messenger

hypotonic solution

hypertonic solution

isotonic solution

Pro= early/before

- earliest living organism (3.4 bya)

- bacteria - only organism that is prokaryotic

- smaller .5 - 2 µm (micrometers)

- no true nucleus & no nuclar membrane - (DNA in cytoplasm), no cytoskeleton, no membrane bound organelles

Eu = true

- came from prokaryotic cells (1.5 bya)

- 10 - 50 µm (10 to -6)

he looked at cork- named "cells"

1. All organisms are composed of cells

2. Cells are the basic units of structure and funtion in organisms

3. Cells come from preexisting cells

- must be able to transport nutrients and waste in and out of cell

- nucleus must be able to control the inside organelles

- cytoskeleton would collapse if they got too large; they'd kill themselves

2 chromosomes - 1 from mom and 1 from dad - same length; banding pattern - contains genes for the same traits in the same order

**may not code for the same allele (form of a gene)

1. Crossing over (meiosis) - genetic recombination

2. Independent assortment - chromosomes separate randomly during meta/anaphase

3. Fertilization - random fusing of egg and sperm during fertilization

- involves 2 organisms

- meiosis/gamete formation

- variation

- involves 1 organism

- no gametes - fission - (like mitosis)

- no variation

G1 stage- cell increases in size, doubles organelles, accumulates materials needed for DNA synthesis

S stage- DNA replication

G2 stage- synthesizes proteins

Interphase

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

Cytokinesis

[image]

- DNA - copies itself

- condenses back into chromosome

[image]

- no nuclear membrane

- chromosomes have doubled

- spindle fibers form

[image]

- chromosomes line up

- spindle fibers grow

[image]

- spindle fibers pull chromos apart

[image]

- 2 identical nuclei

[image]

- the division of cytoplasm and organelles

DNA doesn't duplicate

*haploid cells

mitosis ends up with 2 identical nuclei

meiosis ends up with haploid cells (4 non identical)

aneuploidy

monosomy

trisomy

deletion

translocation

inversion

duplication

(female) X___

sex organs underdeveloped, sterile, webbed neck, short stature, 1-10,000 people affected

(male) XXy

sex organs underdeveloped, sterile, slow learners, long legs and arms, 1-10,000

XXX

tall, think, learning problems, delayed motor development, fertile, 1-1,500

Xyy 1-1,000

Taller, persistent acne, speech and reading problems, capable of reproduction

- differing levels of retardation

- increase susceptibility to disease

- extra folds in eyelids, short stubby fingers

- an extra 21st chromosome 1-800

Chromo 2 and 20 exchange segments (translocation)

-Distinctive facial features

heart, liver, nervous system and kidney problems

1-70,000

traits that are controlled by 2 or more genes

- eye color, skin color, hair color, etc.

it is possible to have 3 alleles for 1 trait

Ex: blood types A, B, O

- Each parent has 2 alleles for a trait

- Each gamete receive one of these alleles

- genes for different traits will "assort independently" during the formation of gametes.

- genes for different traits are not linked to each other

_________ or _____ _____ _______ are carried on the X chromosome

(ex: color blindness and hemophilia - blood disease)

- must have 2 recessive alleles for disease to show up

- gender does not matter (males and females affected equally)

- can have carriers

ex: cystic fibrosis, tay sachs

- if the doiminant allele is present individual is affected

- gender does not matter (males and females are affected equally)

- No carriers/heterozygous is affected

Ex: Huntington's Disease/ Achondroplasia

DNA- deoxyribose

Nitrogen bases: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine (A-T, G-C)

double stranded

RNA- ribose

Nitrogen bases: Adenine, Uracil, Guanine, Cytosine (A-U, G-C)

single stranded

1. Enzymes break the hydrogen bonds between the DNA double helix

2. 2 strands unwind and act as templates (instructors)

3. DNA nucleotides pair up with the templates - *complimentary base pairing

4. DNA polymerase acts as the glue and proofreader

- New Hydrogen (H+) bonds form

- Forms 2 identical strands

Replication begins at numerous origins on the DNA strands and spread until they meet

500-5000 per minute

(the entire strand in a matter of hours)

Replication begins at numerous ______ on the DNA strands and _______ until they ______

_________ - _________ per minute

(the entire strand in a matter of _______)

* occurs in nucleus

Process in which code is copied from DNA to RNA and sent to ribosome:

- RNA Polymerase attaches to a promoter (start location) on the DNA strand

-Hydrogen bonds break

- RNA nucleotides pair up (Comp. base pairing)

* RNA nucleotides have Uracil instead of Thymine

- This continues until "stop" code is reached

- Now a new messenger RNA (mRNA) is formed

- mRNA can leave the nucleus and travel to ribosome

-Old DNA strands form hydrogen bonds to reconnect

*occurs in ribosomes

- the decoding of mRNA into a protein

(proteins are made by stringing together AA forming a chain)

*mRNA is divided into codons (3 base pairs)

*- AA are carried to mRNA by a tRNA

tRNA- the anticodon on the tRNA pairs with the codon on the mRNA

- the AA's connect together forming the specific protein

-tRNA leaves to pick up another AA

*rRNA (ribosomal RNA) found in the ribosomes just must be present

1. Extract DNA (blood or tissue)

2. Cut into fragments with restriction enzymes (the # of fragments and lengths vary from person to person)

3. Separate fragments with a gel electrophoresis box

a. DNA placed in wells

b. Electric current is run through

c. The longer pieces stay closer to the well and smaller pieces move further down Gel box

1. Use restriction enzymes to cut DNA causing 'sticky ends'

2. DNA fragments combine with bacterial DNA (plasmid) to be inserted into a bacterial cell

3. DNA insertion

isolate cells then grow into colonies and clone

4. Extract new product

-reproduce quickly

-has plasmid

-cheap

-plentiful

-nobody cares about them

a) make many things - build and repair tissue, regulate body processes (enzymes), make antibodies, muscle tissue, plasma membrane, etc.

b) made in the process of transcription, translation when the gene is activated

monomer- one piece

polymer- many pieces

monomer- AAs

polymer- proteins

carbohydrates

lipids

nucleic acids

proteins

- extreme pH (acids/bases)

- extreme temperature

made of C, H, O in 1-2-1 ratio

Function: immediate energy source and give structure

monomer- single sugars

polymer- chains of sugars (few- 100's)

1. Monosaccharides

2. Disaccharide

3. Polysaccharides

- quick energy

glucose- major source of cellular fuel

C₆H₁₂0_{6 carried in blood, broken down in mitochondria (cellular respiration)}

2 monosaccharides

glucose + fructose = sucrose (table sugar)

polymers of monosaccharides - short term energy and storage molecules, gives structures

Plants: starch- glucose storage

Animals: glycogen- glucose storage

Plant cell walls: cellulose- structure

Definte the following terms: they are all types of Polysaccharides:

Plants: starch-

Animals: glycogen-

Plant cell walls: cellulose-

Exoskeletons: chitin-

Adding 2 molecules together by taking out water (OH from one molecule and a H from another)

2 to 1

using water to break the bond holding monomers together

1 to 2

Fats- insulation, long term energy storage

Oils- plants long term energy storage

Phospholipid - plasma membrane

Waxes - protective function

Steroids - cholesterol, sex hormones

1 glycerol - polar; soluble

3 fatty acid chains - non soluble

Saturated

Unsaturated

Saturated - no double bonds

- completely saturated with hydrogen

ex: animal fats

Unsaturated - contains double bonds - easier to break down

ex: oils- plants

DNA- heredity

RNA- makes proteins

monomer- nucleotides

polymer- nucleic acids

the kid had ALD, which was a sex-linked disorder. He was missing the enzyme to break down fatty acids. Therefore, the defective enzyme was building up the fatty acids, which ate away at the myelin.

Myelin- wraps around on nerve cell