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Biology Exam 4 Study Guide
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147
Biology
Undergraduate 1
04/25/2013

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Term
Bones of the human skeleton
Definition
See Handout
Term
What is meant by the hierarchical arrangement of muscles?
Definition
muscle fiber > single fiber > myofibril > sarcomere
Term
What is a sarcomere?
Definition
functional unit of contraction
Term
How are Z lines and thick and thin filaments arranged in a sarcomere?
Definition
z-lines are vertical lines that delineate each sarcomere.

Thin filaments = 2 strands of actin and other protein

Thick filament = myosin
Term
What happens to the appearance of a sarcomere when a muscle contracts?
Definition
The z-lines move but the thick filament doesnt move. Sarcomere gets shorter
Term
What is meant by the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction?
Definition
The thick filament attaches to the thin filament, via the myosin head, the filaments move inwards and the muscle contracts

(more details on handout)
Term
Of what protein is the thick filament composed?
Definition
myosin
Term
What is the protein’s structure?
Definition
It has a round head, and a tail
Term
What is the molecule’s relationship to ADP and ATP?
Definition
ATP------> ADP + P + E
(myosin on arrow)
Term
Of what proteins is the thin filament composed?
Definition
Actin and 2 regulatory protiens
Term
What are the regulatory proteins?
Definition
Troponin and tropomyosin
Term
What is meant by regulatory proteins?
Definition
proteins embedded in the thin filaments to prevent muscle contraction
Term
What is the function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum?
Definition
Specialized ER. Nerve impulse causes the release of calcium, which ultimately causes a muscle contraction
Term
Know the events of the contraction cycle, including the role of Ca++ from the SR, binding site exposure, crossbridge formation, powerstroke, and how ATP and ADP interact with the myosin head during contraction.
Definition
Handout!
Term
How is energy supplied to a muscle to fuel continual maximal contraction?
Definition
ATP energy
Term
Where does muscle each energy supply come from?
Definition
Free ATP
Phosphates (creatine phosphate)
Glycogen Metab
Term
How long does each muscle energy supply last?
Definition
Free ATP- (5-6 sec)
Phosphates (creatine phosphate)- 5-10 sec
Glycogen Metab
Term
What are the two pathways by which glycogen (glucose) is degraded in muscles?
Definition
Glycolisis followed by either Krebs cycle or lactic acid cycle
Term
What happens in a muscle under anaerobic conditions
Definition
Lactic acid cycle, net only 2 ATP
Term
What happens in a muscle under aerobic conditions
Definition
cellular respiration, net 38 ATP
Term
What causes muscle fatigue? Delayed muscle soreness?
Definition
tearing of muscles
Term
What are the characteristics of twitch fibers?
Definition
-large nerve cells
-all or nothing response
-low myoglobin content
-ex: chicken breast
Term
What are the characteristics of tonic fibers?
Definition
-slow movement
-small nerve fibers
-strong, long duration muscles
-lots of myoglobin
-ex: clam abductor muscles
Term
What is the function of myoglobin?
Definition
It has a high affinity for 02, supplies it to muscles
Term
What is the function of the vertical muscles of insects?
Definition
contract pull thorax/ wings up. Put pressure on longitudinal muscles
Term
What is the function of the longitudinal muscles of insects?
Definition
respond to pressure, distort the top of thorax and wings snap down Causes vertical muscles to stretch
Term
What is the relationship of the nervous system to the insect flight muscles?
Definition
the wings move too fast to move 1 per nerve impulse. Every few beats (up to 40) a nerve impulse arrives
Term
How do the nervous and endocrine systems compare as control systems?
Definition
N.S is rapid
E.S. can be fast or slow
Term
What are the series of events that lead from detection of a stimulus to the response of an effector?
Definition
stimulus --> sensory neuron --> integration (brain) --> motor neurons --> effector output
Term
What are sensory neurons?
Definition
neurons that respond to an external stimulus
Term
What are motor neurons?
Definition
neurons that result in movement of an effector cell
Term
What structures are effectors?
Definition
muscles, other neurons, etc
Term
What is meant by the Central Nervous System?
Definition
brain and spinal cord
Term
What is meant by Peripheral Nervous System?
Definition
all nerves in the body outside the brain and spinal cord
Term
What animals have no nerve cells?
Definition
phylum porifera
Term
What is a nerve net?
Definition
a nervous system that conducts impulses in all directions from a stimulus
Term
What animals have a nerve net?
Definition
cnidarians
Term
What are nerves?
Definition
a bundle of neurons and blood vessels wrapped in connective tissue
Term
What are neurons?
Definition
specialized nervous system cells
Term
How do nerves and neurons relate to each other?
Definition
nerves are composed of neurons
Term
With what type of symmetry is ganglionization associated?
Definition
bilateral symmetry
Term
What is a ganglion?
Definition
a proto brain, or concentration of neurons
Term
What is cephalization?
Definition
development of brain in the head
Term
Why are brains in heads and not in butts?
Definition
the majority of our sensory organs are located in our heads
Term
What type of anterior ganglion do higher invertebrates have?
Definition
circumesophagial ganglion
Term
What phyla constitute the higher invertebrates?
Definition
annelida, arthropoda
Term
What type of nerve cord do higher invertebrates have?
Definition
dorsal nerve cord
Term
What type of nerve cord do vertebrates have?
Definition
spinal cord
Term
What are the three “primitive” areas of the vertebrate brain?
Definition
forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
Term
What is the function of each section of the primitive vertebrate brain?
Definition
forebrain- sensory information
midbrain- coordinates effector response info
hindbrain- balance andbody function (HR, BR)
Term
What is the function of the spinal cord?
Definition
controls reflexes
Term
What are the three major areas of the cerebrum?
Definition
sensory, motor, and association cortex
Term
What are the three major areas of the cerebrum's functions?
Definition
motor- movement
somatosensory- touch reception
association- speech, reasoning, morality, judgement
Term
What evidence is there that the cerebrum evolved more rapidly than the skull (cranium)?
Definition
ASK DOC C
Term
What are the parts of a neuron?
Definition
cell body (nucleus/ organelles), axons, dendrites
Term
What are the functions of the different parts of the neurons?
Definition
axon- transmits signals
dendrites- receive signal
cell body- normal cellular functions
Term
What animal has been very useful in the studying of axons?
Definition
Loligo (giant squid)
Term
Why was the giant squid appropriate for the study of axons?
Definition
the axons were very large
Term
What are the relative concentrations and locations of ions in the neuron call and outside the neuron at rest?
Definition
High concentration of Na outside
High concentration of K inside
Term
What are leakage channels?
Definition
Sodium and Potassium can get through the membrane without going through voltage gated channels
Term
What maintains the resting potential?
Definition
The sodium potassium pump
Term
How does the sodium potassium pump work
Definition
It actively transports 3 Na out and 2 K in
Term
How is the sodium potassium pump different between vertebrates and invertebrates?
Definition
ASK DOC C
Term
What is meant by a resting potential and a polarized cell?
Definition
The resting potential is -70 mV and a polarized cell is a cell with negative voltage (typically at the resting potential)
Term
What is the voltage difference between the inside and outside of a neuron at rest?
Definition
-70 mV
Term
What is the immediate effect of a stimulus on the membrane of a neuron?
Definition
Voltage gated sodium channels open
Term
What is the sequence of events in the movement of Na+ into the neuron?
Definition
a stimulus or nerve impulse alters the membrane potential opening voltage gated sodium channels
Term
Why does it move into the neuron?
Definition
electrical and concentration gradients
Term
What happens to K+?
Definition
After Na channels open, K channels open, and it rushes out of the cell
Term
What is meant by voltage-gated channels?
Definition
protein channels that will not open unless the membrane potential is altered by a stimulus or a nerve impulse
Term
What causes depolarization?
Definition
Na entering the cell, and the cell becoming positive
Term
what causes repolarization?
Definition
K channels opening and K leaving the cell
Term
How long does an action potential last?
Definition
5 ms
Term
How is the resting potential restored?
Definition
Sodium potassium pump
Term
How much of a neuron’s ATP is used to restore the resting potential?
Definition
70%
Term
What is a synapse?
Definition
where a neuron meets another neuron, gland or muscle
Term
what is A presynaptic fiber?
Definition
axon
Term
what is a Postsynaptic fiber?
Definition
muscle, gland, another neuron
Term
what is a Neuromuscular junction?
Definition
where a neuron meets muscle fibers
Term
what are Synaptic vesicles?
Definition
cellular structures that contain neurotransmitters
Term
what is a Neurotransmitter?
Definition
a chemical that opens ligand gated channels and causes a response in post synaptic cells
Term
what is a Synaptic cleft?
Definition
the space between the pre and post synaptic cells at the synapse
Term
What is the effect of an action potential on the synaptic vesicles?
Definition
they release neurotransmitters
Term
How is exocytosis involved in transmission across a synapse?
Definition
neurotransmitters leave the presynaptic cells via exocytosis
Term
What are receptor molecules?
Definition
ligand gated channel
Term
Where are receptor molecules located?
Definition
post synaptic cell
Term
What is meant by a ligand (chemically)-gated channel?
Definition
A protien channel that only opens when certain chemicals are bound to it
Term
Describe the events that occur in the pre- and postsynaptic fibers at a neuromuscular junction.
Definition
SEE HANDOUT
Term
What is the neurotransmitter at a neuromuscular junction?
Definition
Acetylcholine
Term
How is muscle contraction initiated by an action potential?
Definition
It causes the release of Ca in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of the post synaptic fiber
Term
What is meant by an excitatory neurotransmitter?
Definition
a neurotransmitter that produces an excitatory response (fires an action potential) in the post synaptic cell
Term
what is An inhibitory neurotransmitter?
Definition
a neurotransmitter that produces an inhibitory response (prevents firing of an action potential) in the post synaptic cell
Term
Why is it necessary to have inhibitory transmitters in the CNS?
Definition
some functions do not need an excitatory response
Term
What large categories into which receptors can be divided?
Definition
mechano, chemo, photo etc
Term
What are the traits of many generalized receptors?
Definition
they have bare nerve endings
Term
What is the function of the lateral line of fish?
Definition
Contains the fish's chemoreceptors
Term
What are the specific specialized receptors?
Definition
chemoreceptors (tastebuds), Mechanoreceptors (hair follicle), photoreceptor (rods and cones)
Term
How are specialized receptors different from generalized receptors?
Definition
specialized receptors function to do a certain type of sensing
Term
What do root hair plexi sense?
Definition
touch
Term
What kind of receptor is a root hair plexi?
Definition
mechanoreceptor
Term
Are root hair plexi on, off, or on-off receptors in most individuals?
Definition
on or on off
Term
What is meant by tactile localization?
Definition
determination of a touch receptive field based on 2 point perception
Term
What is a receptive field?
Definition
the area of the skin that 1 mechanoreceptor is responsible for
Term
How do different areas of the body differ in receptive field size and density?
Definition
In areas where touch is needed, there are more receptive fields (ie the hand)

in areas where touch is less important, there are less receptive fields (ie the back)
Term
Why are receptors characterized as transducers?
Definition
They convert light, chemical or mechanical energy into an electrical impulse
Term
How do receptors fit into the overall pathway of nervous conduction?
Definition
they are the sensory neurons
Term
What do photoreceptors detect?
Definition
Light
Term
What is a positive or negative taxis?
Definition
A negative taxis is movement away from light. A positive taxis is moving toward light
Term
What photoreceptors do planaria have?
Definition
auricles
Term
What type of phototaxis do planria have?
Definition
Negative b/c it best mimics their enviornment
Term
What groups of animals can form well-defined images?
Definition
vertebrates and arthropods
Term
Is the ability to form well defined images a universal phenomenon or one that has evolved independently?
Definition
evolved independently
Term
What is the structure of the arthropod eye?
Definition
compound eye
Term
What type of images are arthropods particularly good at detecting?
Definition
movement
Term
What is the structure of the cephalopod and vertebrate eye? How are they similar? How are they different? What structures are used for focusing in both?
Definition
-top notch predators
-structures for focusing, lens and cornea
-both transparent, bend light to a point on retina
-retina connects neurons to visual center of brain (via optic nerve)
-contain rods and cones
Term
What is the retina?
Definition
the location of photoreceptors in the eye
Term
Of what two types of cells is the retina composed?
Definition
rods and cones
Term
How do rods and cones function?
Definition
detect light (photoreceptors)
Term
What type of light do rods and cones detect?
Definition
rods- colorless vison (dim light)
cones- 3 populations of color cells (red, green, blue
Term
What type of receptors are olfactory structures?
Definition
chemoreceptors
Term
What animals have the most sensitive sense of smell?
Definition
male moth
Term
How is the moth olfactory sense more acute than other animals?
Definition
the feathery chemoreceptors have a lot of surface area. Only 1 molecule of pheromones initiates action potential in the ganglion
Term
For what do male moths use their sense of smell?
Definition
to sniff out female moths
Term
What is a pheromone?
Definition
the scent a female moth produces when its time to mate
Term
How can you tell a male moth from a female moth?
Definition
featherieness of their antennae
Term
What evidence is there that vertebrate olfaction is probably the oldest of the specialized senses?
Definition
the nose is a direct pipeline to the brain
Term
Where is the olfactory bulb located?
Definition
forebrain
Term
How do the olfactory cells probably work?
Definition
It is not well understood but there are probably different receptor sites for different molecules
Term
Which vertebrates have the most sensitive sense of smell?
Definition
salmon
Term
For what do salmon use their sense of swim?
Definition
swim upstream to where they were born to reproduce
Term
How do snakes smell?
Definition
their tongue collects airborn molecules, jacobsons organ collects and gathers sensory info to send to the brain
Term
What type of odors generally masks others? How might this work at the molecular level?
Definition
strong odors, larger molecules
Term
What type of receptors are auditory receptors?
Definition
mechanoreceptors
Term
Where are the auditory receptors located on insects?
Definition
underneath wings
Term
What are the auditory receptors on insects called?
Definition
tympanic membrane
Term
Why do insects have auditory receptors?
Definition
mating
Term
Where are ears located on vertebrates?
Definition
head
Term
Which mammals have the most acute sense of audition?
Definition
bat
Term
What do bats do with their acute sense of hearing?
Definition
echolocation
Term
What is the basic structure of the mammalian ear?
Definition
outer, middle and inner ear
Term
How is the inner ear designed to convert sound waves into nerve impulses?
Definition
hair cells move in fluid in inner ear attach to neurons that go directly to the auditory center
Term
What type of receptors are gustatory receptors?
Definition
chemoreceptors
Term
Where are fly gustatory receptors located?
Definition
their feet
Term
Why is location of fly gustatory receptors advantageous to them?
Definition
??????
Term
What are the four basic flavors that they sense?
Definition
salty, sweet, bitter, umani
Term
Which area(s) of the tongue was/were most sensitive to all flavors?
Definition
the tip
Term
Which flavor seemed to be sensed most strongly by class members?
Definition
salty
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