Lab Safety  

•    Don’t perform unassigned experiments.
•    Know all safety precautions.
•    Tie back long hair, roll up sleeves, and wear protective equipment.
•    Always wear apron and goggles.
•    No contact lenses.
•    Know all safety equipment.
•    Immediately report any accident or hazard.
•    Alert teacher incase of fire alert.
•    Don’t fool around.
•    No food or drink.
•    Keep work area organized.
•    Clean your work area at the end of the lab.
•    Wash your hands.

Scientific Method

•    Observe
•    Ask A Question
•    Collect Data
•    Hypothesize
•    Experiment
•    Draw a Conclusion

Compound Light Microscope  

•    Eyepiece—combination of lenses in the upper part of the tube where you bring your eye to when using the microscope.
•    Objective lens—combination of lenses in the lower end of the tube, placed directly over the object observed
•    Base
•    Arm—supported by a base, connects top to bottom
•    Stage—horizontal platform with a hole through which light can pass
•    Tube—vertical cylinder which holds the optical parts
•    Nosepiece—used to rotate until you reach your desired lens
•    Focusing knobs—wheels with ridged edges, turned to raise or lower the stage
•    Course adjustment—larger knobs that move the stage quickly through full range of its motion
•    Fine adjustment—smaller knobs that move the stage slowly through a small distance and enables you to change focus
•    Stage clips—metal clips which hold the slide in position
•    Slide
•    Mirror—a light source that lets light pass up through the stage to the objective lens
•    Diaphragm—regulates the amount of light that passes through the stage and is located on the under side of the stage

•    Line graphs—show the relations of one controlled variable affecting another variable
•    Bar graphs—make it easy to compare data quickly
•    Pie chart—easy way to visualize how parts make up a whole, for example: percentage data

•    The theory that all matter consists of atoms. Atoms of each element are effectively identical but differ from those of other elements, and unite to form compounds.
•    Parts of an atom

•    An atom or molecule with an electrical charge
•    How are they composed

•    When elements undergo chemical reactions that combine their atoms to become stable, chemical bonds are broken, atoms are rearranged, and new chemical bonds are formed.

•    H2O—chemical formula for water
•    Special properties of water because of its ability to Hydrogen Bond
•    Water is adhesive—it will bond to charged substances other than water
•    Cohesion—when water molecules are attracted to each other
•    Water has a high boiling point and evaporative point
•    Water has a high freezing point
•    Water has a high surface tension

•    A mixture in which one or more substances are uniformly dissolved in another substance
•    Can be mixtures of liquids, solids, or gasses
•    Solute—substance dissolved in the solution
•    Solvent—the substance in which the solute is dissolved
•    Concentration—measurement of the amount of solute dissolved in a fixed amount of the solution
•    Saturated solutions—a solution where no more solute can be dissolved
•    Aqueous solutions—solution in which water is the solvent, are universally important to living things

•    Acids—if the number of hydronium ions in a solution is greater than the number of hydroxide ions, the solution is an acid
•    Bases—if a solution contains more hydroxide ions than hydronium ions
    o    Alkaline—adjective referring to bases
•    pH scale—scale for comparing the relative concentrations of hydronium ions and hydroxide ions in a solution
•    Ranges from 0 to 14
    o    Solution with a pH of 0 is very Acidic
    o    Solution with a pH of 14 is very basic
•    Buffers—chemical substances that neutralize small amounts of either an acid or a base added to a solution
•    Dissociation of Water—The breaking apart of ions of opposite charge is called dissociation

•    Carbon
•    Hydrogen
•    Oxygen
•    Nitrogen
•    Phosphorus
•    Sulfur

•    Exergonic—when energy is released then the reaction is exergonic
•    Endergonic—when energy is stored in a product then the reaction is endegonic

•    Binomial Nomenclature
    o     Species name—Linnaeus’ system of naming organisms, scientific name has 2 parts
    o    Genus—first part of the name
    o    Species Identifier—second part
    o    Binomial Nomenclature—system of two-part names
•    Genus name is capitalized and both names are underlined/italics
•    Species name describes the organism
•    Modern taxonomists use phylogeny of the organism

•    Needles vs. Typical leaf
    o    Needles—modified leaves found on conifers
    o    Typical—found on flowering plants
•    Types of Flat Leaves
    o    Simple vs. Compound
•    Teeth vs. No Teeth
•    Lobe vs. No lobe
•    Position of leaves on branch
    o    Opposite vs. Alternate

•    The chemical inhibition of one organism by another, due to the release into the environment of substances acting as germination or growth inhibitors

•    Condensation (Dehydration Synthesis) Reaction
    o    Small molecules are bonded together through the loss of H2O
•    Hydrolysis
    o    Using water to break apart molecules into smaller components

•    Formed in mitochondria
•    In Nucleic Acids
•    ATP is a modified nucleitide—building block for nucleic acids

•    Important class of catalysts in living things.
•    Lock and Key mode of Enzyme Function
    o    Substrate—reactant being catalyzed
    o    Active site—on surface of enzyme
    o    Substrate complex—substrat occurs at active site
•    What affects the active site—temp, pH, and gene mutation

•    Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum, Large Intestine, Rectum, Anus
1.    Mouth—mechanical and chemical; will begin carb hydrolysis
2.    Food enters—pharynx to esophagus where peristalsis occurs
3.    Food enters stomach—churning causes mechanical, protease enzymes produced, hydrochloric acid unravels proteins
    o    Pepsin—stomach protease
4.    Small intestine—Chime→soupy mixture of food released into small intestine
    o    Into duodenum

•    Mechanical—food is physically broken down into smaller bits
    o    Mouth, stomach
•    Chemical—digestive enzymes hydrolyze polymers into smaller segments or monomers
    o    Mouth, stomach, small intestine
•    Three types of digestive enzymes
    o    Amylases
    o    Proteuses
    o    Lipases

•    Three parts to cell theory
    o    All living things are composed of one or more cells
    o    Cells are the basic units of structure and function
    o    Cells come only from the reproduction of existing cells

•    Hooke—1665 English scientist used a microscope to examine cork, said he saw little boxes, called them “cells”
o    Was the first to observe dead cells
•    Leeuwenhoek—Dutch microscope maker was first to observe living cells. In 1673 made a microscope powerful enough to see cells
•    Scheiden—1838 German botanist concluded that all plants were made of cells
•    Schwann—1839 zoologist said all animals are composed of cells
•    Virchow—1855 physician said cells come only from other cells

•    How large a cell can grow is limited by the ratio of its surface area to its volume
•    Surface area—measure of the outside of an object, squared
•    Volume—measures the inside material of an object, cubed
•    SA / V
•    As cells size increase, their SA / V ratio decreases
•    Large cells cant absorb enough nutrients through their membranes

•    Found around a cell, the nucleus, and each organelle
•    Composition: phospholipids molecules, protein
•    Fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
•    Cell membrane is composed of phospholipids bilayer where floating protein molecules are
•    Types of proteins:
    o    Channel—allows particles to pass in and out of the cell
    o    Receptor—allows molecules to attach to them
    o    Marker—allows cells to be identified by immune system

•    Mitochondria—produces ATP molecules by cell respiration
•    Ribosome—made of ribosomal RNA; site for protein synthesis
•    Endoplasmic Reticulum—tube transport system in cytoplasm
    o    Rough ER—contain ribosomes on surface
    o    Smooth ER—lack ribosomes
•    Golgi Apparatus—package materials into vesicles
•    Lysosomes—vesicles that contain powerful digestive enzymes
    o    May kill unhealthy cells or reshape larval animals
•    Cytoskeleton—protein skeleton inside a cell
    o    Proteins are called microtubules
    o    Cilla and flagella contain microtubules; give flexibility
•    Centriole—found in only animal cells and functioning during cell division and occur in pairs and form spindles
•    Nucleus—
    o    Nuclear envelope—double membrane
    o    Nuclear pores—allow molecules to pass in and out
    o    Nucleolus—functions to make RNA

•    Plant cells have a
    o    Cell wall
    o    Chloroplast
    o    Larger vacuole
    o    Brick shaped; not round

•    The movement of particles from an are of high to low concentration
•    Equilibrium—when concentration of all particles is equal
•    Concentration gradient—difference between two points
•    Diffusion in lungs—selectively permeable membrane lets some particles though but not others

•    The movement of water through a membrane from an are of high to low water concentration
•    Direction of water flow is determined by the types of solution on each side of the membrane
•    Three types
    o    Hypotonic—describes solute, less solute in the solution on the other side of the membrane
    o    Hypertonic—moves solute in outside solution then inside the cell
    o    Isotonic—the proportion of solute on each side of a membrane is the same

•    Channels and proteins that help particles move in and out of cells
•    Uses carrier channel and proteins to move glucose inside the cell

•    When a cell must expend energy in the form of ATP to move particles across the membrane
•    Types: endocytosis, exocytosis, sodium-potassium pump