Term
| What are 3 problems with getting energy only from glycolysis? |
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Definition
1. Pyruvate waste product
2. NADH waste product
3. limited NAD+ |
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Term
| Fermentation: Lactic Acid Fermentation |
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Definition
Simpler: reduction of pyruvate to lactic acid
Used by microbes and animal muscles
Gets rid of pyruvate waste, creates more NAD+
Oxidized back into pyruvate by animals
Products: NAD+ and lactic acid |
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Term
| Fermentation: Ethanol Fermentation |
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Definition
Decarboxylates pyruvate acetaldehyde, further reduced to ethanol (C2H5OH)
Products: CO2, NAD+, ethanol (used by yeast for ethanol fermentation and baking) |
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Term
| Citric Acid Cycle transition step: |
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Definition
Pyruvate partially oxidized to form Acetyl coenzyme A by pyruvate dehyrogenase complex (in matrix of mitochondria)
Cost: -2 pyruvate
Products: +2 Acetyl CoA, +2 NADH, +2 CO2 |
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Term
| Citric Acid Cycle definition and products: |
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Definition
Finishes breaking down Acetyl CoA, 2 Carbons cycle through multiple times to be degraded
Cost: -2 Acetyl CoA
Products: +4 CO2, +2 ATP. +2 FADH2, +6 NADH
FADH2 and NADH are electron carriers, then enter ETC to form more ATP later |
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Term
| Steps of the Citric Acid Cycle: |
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Definition
1. AcoA and Oxaloacetate combine to form Citrate (very acidic)
2. Isomerizes to form Isocitrate
3. Isocitrate forms alpha-Ketoglutarate (Products: +1 NADH, +1 CO2)
4. Important intermediate, loses first C as CO2 (Product: +1 CO2)
5. Succinyl-CoA has lost 2 C's (after multiple cycles), phosphate added
7. Phosphate taken off, forms ATP (Products: +1 ATP)
8. Succinate oxidizes (Product: +1 FADH2)
9. Water added to Fumarate to form Malate
10. Malate loses to protons to form oxaloacetate (Products: +1 NADH) |
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Term
| When are the carbons lost in the Citric Acid Cycle? |
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Definition
| The first is lost in the first cycle, the second is lost in the fourth cycle |
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Term
| Total products of Cellular Respiration: |
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Definition
Glycolysis: net +2 ATP, +2 NADH, +2 pyruvate
CAC transition step: -2 ATP, -2 Acetyl CoA, +4 NADH, +2 CO2
Citric Acid Cycle: +6 CO2, +10 NADH, +2 FADH2, net +4 ATP
ETC: -2 ATP, +6 ATP, +100 protons from NADH (each NADH makes 10), +12 protons from FADH2 (each FADH2 makes 6)
+112 protons total
Some protons lost by diffusion so at the end of cellular respiration, one glucose creates net 38 ATP |
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Term
| What is gluconeogenesis and why is it needed? |
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Definition
Reverse glycolysis - used if you need glucose but:
1. You can't perform photosynthesis
2. You can't find glucose in your environment
Uses pyruvate to make glucose
Steps have a delta G of about zero, although the first step is energetically expensive |
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Term
| 2 steps of Gluconeogenesis |
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Definition
1. Uses ATP to add CO2 to pyruvate (forms pyruvate carboxylase) then forms oxaloacetate
2. Phosphate from GTP binds to middle bond, releases CO2 and forms phosphoenal pyruvate |
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Term
| What is an anapleurotic reaction? |
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Definition
The process of making new intermediates for metabolic pathways
- Alpha Ketoglutarate used to make amino acids
- Oxaloacetate used to make amino acids and nucleotides needed in gluconeogenesis |
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Term
| What is nitrogen fixation? |
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Definition
Reduced N is needed for the synthesis of amino acids
N can be reduced to ammonia (NH3); only bacteria can do this
Performed with nitrogenase
Requires 12 ATP and 3 NADH optimally but usually uses 16 ATP and 4 NADH
Nitrogenase needs oxygen free environment |
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Term
| Steps of Nitrogen Fixation |
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Definition
1. Pair of e-'s added to molecular nitrogen (-4 ATP) - Takes N2 to HN=NH
2. Second reduction uses another (-4 ATP) to take HN=NH to H2N-NH2
3. Final reduction uses another (-4 ATP) to take H2N-NH2 to NH3 + NH3 |
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Term
| Who uses nitrogen fixation? |
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Definition
Azotobacter: lives in soil
Rhizobium: infects plant roots, forms nodules in roots, mutualistic symbiosis because the plant provides ATP and NADH (20% of energy) but bacteria provides nitrogen - important for farming |
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Term
| Definition of Nitrogen Assimilation: |
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Definition
Once we have NH3, need a way to add to amino acids (this is performed by microbes, plants and animals)
Uses
1. Alanine dehydrogenase - adds NH2 to pyruvate, creates alanine
2. Glutamate dehyrogenase - adds NH3 to alpha-ketoglutarate, creates glutamate
Transaminases then move amino groups to synthesize the 18 other amino acids |
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Term
| Definition: Facilitated Diffusion |
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Definition
| Special proteins allow polar and ionic compounds to pass through phospholipid membrane; selective with ions, only works in one direction |
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Term
| Definition: Active transport |
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Definition
Uses energy, enzyme in process called permase
1. Can use ATP for transport and keeping concentration
2. Antiporter: one molecule in, one out
3. Symporter: brings in 2 simultaneously |
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Term
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Definition
Propel bacteria by rotating
Run: counterclockwise rotation
Tumble: clockwise rotation |
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Term
| Bacterial attractants and repellants: |
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Definition
Attractants: sugars, amino acids, oxygen
Repellants: hydrophobic amino acids, organic salts, heavy metals, acids |
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Term
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Definition
Bacteria divide by binary fission, form septum
1. Lag phase - preparing to grow
2. Log phase - grow exponentially
3. Stationary phase - nutrients run out and waste product builds up
4. Death phase - death occurs
5. Long term stationary phase - declines slowly |
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Term
| Methods for the control of bacterial growth |
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Definition
1. Sterilization - kills all microbes
2. Disinfection - removes microbes from living tissue
3. Antisepsis - Removes microbes from living tissue
Bactericide: kills
Bacteriostatic: provents, no killing |
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Term
| Bacterial growth control: Raising temperature |
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Definition
D-value: time it takes to kill 90% of bacteria (E.coli D-value= 24 seconds at 60 degrees)
Thermal Death Time: time required to kill every cell
Pasteurization: 63-66 degrees for 30 minutes
Flash Pasteurization: 71 degrees for 15 seconds
Ultrahigh Temp Sterilization: 150 degrees for 1 to 3 seconds
Autoclave: steam and pressure, 121 degrees for 15 minutes |
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Term
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Definition
Core wall: cell wall
Cortex: weakly crosslinked peptidoglycan + DPA on surface of core wall
Spore coat: dense protein layer
Exosporium: thin coating
Alway Gram + rods (bacillus, clostridium) |
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Term
| Bacillus strains of Endospores |
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Definition
Bacillus subtilus:
- most studied, found in soil, used to make natto
Bacillus anthracis:
- found in soil, can infect wounds, toxin kills cells (cutaneous, gastrointestinal, pulmonary), treated with penicillin if caught quickly enough |
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Term
| Clostridium strains of endospores |
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Definition
Clostridium perfringens:
- gangrene, anaerobic, infects wound tissue
Clostridium tetani:
- tetanospasmin, antagonistic muscle spasms
Costridium botulinum:
- botulism, multiple toxins, muscle paralysis, from improperly canned foods, used in botox |
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Term
| 5 Traditional Methods for Bacterial Growth Control |
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Definition
1. Apply Heat (pasteurization, Ultrahigh temp sterilization, autoclave, cooking)
2. Consume immediatly
3. Desiccation (remove water)
4. Raise Osmolarity (increase solute concentration, e.g. beef jerky)
5. Fermentation |
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