Term
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Definition
| The interaction between products of one loci with another. |
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Term
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Definition
| inheritance of a phenotypic characteristic that varies in degree and can be attributed to the interactions between two or more genes and their environment. |
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Term
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Definition
| haploid genotype, multilocus genotype of a chromosome or gamete (gametic phase) |
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Term
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Definition
| the non-random association of alleles at two or more loci, not necessarily on the same chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| describes the association of two or more loci on a chromosome with limited recombination between them. |
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Term
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Definition
| the process by which a strand of genetic material is broken and then joined to a another DNA molecule. This may happen during meiosis of a diploid organism that sexually reproduces or may be something like conjugation in bacteria where there is an exchange of DNA between two haploid individuals. |
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Term
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Definition
| a type of genetic recombination in which nucleotide sequences are exchanged between two similar or identical strands of DNA |
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Term
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Definition
proportion of gametes that are recombinant. Range from 0 to .5
If on different chromosomes then recombination
rate is going to be 0.5 (Mendel’s 2nd Law) |
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Term
| Coefficient of Linkage disequilibrium |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| when AB and ab are the only chromosomes and at equal frequency |
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Term
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Definition
| when Ab and aB are the only chromosomes and at equal frequency |
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Term
| causes of Linkage disequilibrium |
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Definition
Selection
Mutation
Population admixture (gene flow), a.k.a. hybridization
Genetic drift |
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Term
| does not cause Linkage disequilibrium |
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Definition
Physical linkage (no matter how close)
Inbreeding |
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Term
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Definition
D’ = D(1-r)
D = fABfab-fAbfaB
r= recomb rate between (0-0.5) |
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Term
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Definition
| Asexual populations accumulate deleterious mutations |
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Term
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Definition
| Burden imposed by accumulation of mildly deleterious alleles |
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Term
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Definition
| a field of evolutionary biology that examines the evolution of continuously variable traits that are influenced by the combined effects of genotype at >1 locus and the environment. |
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Term
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Definition
| characters with continuously distributed phenotypes (e.g., height, beak depth in finches) |
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Term
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Definition
| fraction of the total phenotypic variation in a trait that is due to variation in genes |
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Term
| Phenotypic variation (VP) |
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Definition
| variation due to genetics (VG) and to environment (VE); VP = VG + VE |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| = variation due to additive genetics (VA) and dominance (VD); VG = VA + VD |
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Term
| Narrow Sense Heritability (h2) |
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Definition
| VA / VP = VA /(VA + VG + VD) |
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Term
| Selection differential (S) |
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Definition
| Difference between trait mean of breeders (t*) and trait mean of entire population ( t ) |
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Term
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Definition
β = S/var(t)
slope of relative fitness to trait value |
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Term
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Definition
| R = h^2^SThe response to selection (R) is just the difference between the mean of the parents before selection and the mean of the offspring. |
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Term
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Definition
Changes average value of trait (increases or decreases)
Variance gets a little smaller |
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Term
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Definition
Average value of trait does not change
Variance gets smaller |
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Term
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Definition
Average value of trait does not change
Variance gets larger |
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Term
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Definition
| Cooperative, Altrustic, Selfish, Spiteful |
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Term
| Kin selection- Coefficients of relatedness (r) |
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Definition
| probability that the homologous alleles in two individuals are identical by descent |
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Term
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Definition
Br – C > 0
r = relatedness between actor and recipient
B = benefit to recipient and C = cost to the actor, both measured in units of surviving offspring |
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Term
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Definition
| direct fitness (own reproduction) + indirect fitness (reproduction from relatives) |
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Term
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Definition
| selection that arises from competition for access to mating opportunities or fertilizations. |
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Term
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Definition
1.A high variance in mating success is a sign of sexual selection.
2.A high variance in reproductive success (fitness) is another sign of sexual selection.
3. A positive relationship between mating success and reproductive success is the cause of sexual selection. |
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Term
| Limiting resources for fitness |
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Definition
| Females limited by quality, males limited by quantity, shallower Bateman gradient vs. steeper batemen gradient |
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Term
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Definition
| Traits that allow one to directly compete with members of the same sex for mating opportunities |
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Term
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Definition
| Traits that attract potential mates |
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Term
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Definition
| All differences between the sexes except for genitalia and gonads. |
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Term
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Definition
A population-wide preference for certain trait values can evolve simply due to the increase in frequency of those trait values.
The Fisherian mechanism says that sexual selection by female choice can cause genetic correlations between male traits and female preferences. |
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Term
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Definition
-A trait (or group of traits) that increases the fitness of its possessor, relative to those without the trait.
-A trait is an adaptation for some function if it has become prevalent or is maintained in a population because of selection for that function. |
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Term
| Not everything that “looks” like an adaptation actually is an adaptation: |
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Definition
A trait may be a necessary consequence of physics or chemistry.
The trait may have evolved by random genetic drift rather than by natural selection.
The feature may have evolved not because it conferred an adaptive advantage, but because it was correlated with a trait that did.
The character state may be a consequence of phylogenetic history. |
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Term
| METHODS FOR RECOGNIZING ADAPTATIONS |
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Definition
| experiments, observational studies, the comparative method |
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Term
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Definition
| genetic variation for the extent to which a trait is phenotypically plastic (genotype-by-environment interaction). |
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Term
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Definition
| The decline in an individual’s ability to reproduce and survive over time. |
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Term
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Definition
| The decline in an individual’s ability to reproduce and survive over time. |
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Term
| The Rate-of-Living Theory of Aging |
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Definition
| Cellular damage due to errors made by biochemical machinery and the accumulation of toxins directly causes senescence. |
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Term
| The Evolutionary Theory of Aging |
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Definition
Aging occurs because repairs to cell and tissue damage are biologically possible, but organisms simply do not evolve complete repair abilities due to constraints.
These constraints are the product of
1.) deleterious mutations, or
2.) trade-offs between repair and reproduction. |
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Term
| The mutation accumulation hypothesis |
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Definition
| Slightly deleterious mutations that result in decreased longevity only slightly decrease fitness, because the effect is near the end of the lifespan, which few individuals reach anyway. |
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Term
| The antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis |
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Definition
| A mutation causes an increase in fecundity earlier in the life span, at the expense of a shortened total life span. |
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Term
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Definition
| selection will favor the “clutch size” that produces the highest offspring survival. |
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Term
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Definition
| species based on morphological differences/similarities |
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Term
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Definition
Can use on extant and extinct taxa
Often used as first means for identification
Easy to collect |
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Term
| Morphospecies disadvantages |
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Definition
What delineates a new species—how much difference?
Some organisms have limited morphology to work with (e.g., bacteria)
Cryptic species (morphologically indistinguishable, but genetically distinct)
Sexual dimorphism – need to define for males and females |
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Term
| Biological Species Concept |
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Definition
| Species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups |
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Term
| Biological Species Concept Advantages |
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Definition
Focuses on evolutionary mechanism –gene flow
Provides a more objective criterion than morphospecies concept |
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Term
| Biological Species Concept disadvantages |
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Definition
Largely focuses on a single evolutionary mechanism—gene flow.
What about organisms with asexual reproduction?
What about fossils where cannot test reproductive isolation?
Reproductive compatibility is a pleisiomorphic character (although reproductive compatibility does not have to equal reproductive isolation as isolation can occur by other means) |
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Term
| Phylogenetic Species concept |
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Definition
| defines species as the smallest diagnosable monophyletic group - species are evolutionarily independent long enough for "diagnostic" traits to appear |
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Term
| Phylogenetic Species concept advantages |
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Definition
Can use on extant and extinct taxa
Molecular data make it feasible to test in most if not all extant taxa
Can use regardless of reproductive mode |
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Term
| Phylogenetic Species concept disadvantages |
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Definition
It may be that each population is actually a distinct species according to PSC (although not a problem with the concept, but how we handle the organization of so many possible “species”)
Need to be cautious of horizontal gene transfer (e.g., especially bacteria) because can create incorrect phylogeny. |
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Term
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Definition
| gradual change through time within a lineage (similar to chronospecies) |
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Term
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Definition
| Fusion of two species to form a new species |
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Term
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Definition
| origin of new lineage— “splitting of lineages-- instanteous or gradual |
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Term
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Definition
| physical isolation creates an effective barrier to gene flow—now other evolutionary mechanisms result in divergence |
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Term
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Definition
| habitat is continuous between the populations that are diverging into separate species |
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Term
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Definition
| – refers to the formation of two or more descendant species from a single ancestral species all occupying the same geographic location |
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Term
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Definition
| natural selection that results in a mechanism to prevent hybridization among individuals of diverged populations that are now in secondary contact |
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Term
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Definition
| mechanisms that prevent fertilization (behavioral, physiological etc |
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Term
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Definition
| hybrid offspring are sterile or infertile |
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Term
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Definition
| Hybrids are maintained because they have higher fitness in zone of contact relative to parental populations |
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Term
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Definition
bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi
- multiply within host (multiple generations)
- acute infections (host death or immunity) |
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Term
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Definition
helminths (e.g., nematodes, flatworms), arthropods
- release eggs or larvae into external environment
- chronic infections (morbidity not mortality |
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Term
Kingdom Protozoa
Phylum Sarcomastigophora |
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Definition
*amoeba and flagellates
Entamoeba, Trichomonas, Giardia, Leishmania, Trypanosoma |
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Term
Kingdom Protozoa
Phylum Apicomplexa |
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Definition
Phylum Apicomplexa
malaria, Eimeria, Toxoplasma, Cryptosporidium |
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Term
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Definition
Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia intestinalis
-asexual reproduction within host
Cyst in feces |
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Term
Trypanosoma brucei
*T. b. gambiense
*T. b. rhodesiense |
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Definition
| African sleeping sickness, Take blood meal, deposit parasite, asexual reproduction in blood, taken out of blood by parasite, multiples within blood of midgut of fly, then grows, and then injects next human |
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Term
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Definition
| Assassin/kissing bugs, in bug feces, scratches skin, parasite in through wound, asexually reproduce in infected tissues, taken out in blood meal, finalizes growth in midgut of parasite |
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Term
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Definition
Cutaneous leishmaniasis
Visceral leishmaniasis (kala-azar
Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis- Sandfly
transform inside marcophages, taken in blood meal, final growth in sandfly |
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Term
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Definition
Felids are final host
sexual and asexual reproduction in cats
asexual in all other hosts |
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Term
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Definition
flatworms
contains free living species
almost all hermaphroditic
parasitic groups: cestodes, digeneans, mongeneans |
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Term
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Definition
roundworms
free living, plant parasites, and animal parasites
more than one origin of animal parasitism |
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Term
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Class Trematoda |
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Definition
6000 species
usually, two suckers
Usually 3 host life cycle
and snail first host, flukes final host |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Fascioloides magna-deer liver fluke |
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Definition
| Final host (eg deer) eats vegetation with paraiste—excysts and penertrates gut wall and migrates to liver. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Class Monogenea |
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Definition
| usually have a simple life cycle involving hermaphroditic adults, eggs and larvae |
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Term
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Class Cestoda |
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Definition
| Typically, adults inhabit the intestines of their hosts, being anchored to the intestinal via a scolex, followed by a series of repeated reproductive segments called proglottids |
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Term
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Class Cestoda
Taenia solium |
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Definition
Humans can be both
final and intermediate
host |
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Term
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Class Cestoda
Echinococcus granulosus |
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Definition
Canids final host
if humans get then larvae can
migrate to most tissues and
form hydatid cyst (asexual
reproduction in cyst)
hydatid disease |
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Term
Phylum Nematoda
Ascaris lumbricoides |
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Definition
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Term
Phylum Nematoda
Hookworms
Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus |
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Definition
| larvae cannot mature further in the human host |
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Term
Phylum Nematoda
Trichinella spiralis |
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Definition
| undercooked pork consumed by humans, larvae deposited, grow within body |
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Term
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Definition
| Infective larvae are transmitted by infected biting arthropods during a blood meal |
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Term
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Definition
| Dirofilaria immitis –dog heartworm |
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Term
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Definition
elphantiasis)
tropical areas worldwide
lymphatic infection |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Spiny headed worms (proboscis with spines)
Dioecious intestinal parasites with no intestine
Vertebrate final hosts, arthropod intermediate hosts |
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Term
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Definition
Adults in lungs and respiratory systems
of land-living carnivorous vertebrates |
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Term
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Definition
| cow poop, to snails, to ant, to cows and humans, adults are in humans |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| mean number of parasites per host examined |
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Term
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Definition
| mean number of parasites per infected host |
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Term
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Definition
| all the parasites of a species within a host individual |
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Term
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Definition
| all the parasites of a species within a host population |
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Term
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Definition
| some parasites can accumulate heavy metals to concentrations orders of magnitude higher than those in the host tissues or the environment. |
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Term
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Definition
| using parasites to indentify host origins, migrations, or stocks |
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Term
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Definition
| indicators of host diet – “ghosts of food items” |
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Term
| Indicators of ecosystem health |
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Definition
| many parasites have complex life cycles, so presence of parasite indicates presence of all hosts need for life cycle |
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