Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 7 Characteristics of all life |
|
Definition
1. Cells and organization
2. Energy use and metabolism
3. Response to environmental changes
4. Regulation and homeostasis
5. Growth and development
6. Reproduction
7. Biological evolution |
|
|
Term
| Cells and Organization (characteristics life 1) |
|
Definition
Organisms maintain an internal order.
The simplest unit of organization is a cell. |
|
|
Term
| Energy use and metabolism (characteristics life 2) |
|
Definition
Maintenance of cellular organization requires energy input.
Energy is used in chemical reactions collectively know as metabolism. |
|
|
Term
| Response to environmental changes (characteristics life 3) |
|
Definition
| Organisms react to environmental changes to promote their survival. |
|
|
Term
| Regulation and Homeostasis (characteristics life 4) |
|
Definition
| Organisms regulate their cells and bodies, maintaining relatively stable internal conditions, a process called homeostasis. |
|
|
Term
| Growth and development (characteristics life 5) |
|
Definition
| Growth produces more or marger cells, whereas development produces an organism with defined characteristics. |
|
|
Term
| Reproduction (characteristics life 6) |
|
Definition
| To sustain life over many generations, organisms must reproduce. Due to the transmission of genetic material, offspring tend to have trait like their parents. |
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|
Term
| Biological evolution (characteristics life 7) |
|
Definition
| Populations of organisms change over the chorus of many generations. Evolution results in traits that promote survival and reproductive success. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Maintain an internal order that is separate from environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. All organisms are made of cells.
2. Cells are the smallest unit of life.
3. Cells come from pre-existing cells via cell division. |
|
|
Term
Hierarchal organization of life (10 items)
(also refer to page 4, where each level is described in detail) |
|
Definition
1. Atoms
2. Molecules and macromolecules
3. Cells
4. Tissues
5. Organs
6. Organism
7. Population
8. Community
9. Ecosystem
10. Biosphere |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Bacteria, Archaea, Eukaryotes |
|
|
Term
| Domains of life - Prokaryotes |
|
Definition
Bacteria & Archaea
Cell structure is relatively simple.
Have no cell nucleus. |
|
|
Term
| Domains of life - Eukaryotes |
|
Definition
Have larger cells with internal compartments that serve various functions.
Have a cell nucleus. |
|
|
Term
| Eukaryotes (4 subcategories) |
|
Definition
Protista (protists)
Plantae (plants)
Fungi
Animalia (animals) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Involves multiple levels in which species are placed in progressively small and smaller groups. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| A phenomenon that populations of organisms change over the chorus of many generations. As a result, some organisms become more successful at survival and reproduction. |
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|
Term
| Science (as defined in Biology) |
|
Definition
| The observation, identification, experimentation and theoretical explanation for natural phenomena. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A series of steps to test a hypothesis. Often involves control vs experimental groups. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| A proposed explanation for a natural phenomenon. A useful hypothesis makes predictions and is falsifiable. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| A broad explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is substantiated by a large body of evidence. |
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|
Term
| Hypothesis testing (step 1/5) |
|
Definition
| Observations are made regarding natural phenomena. |
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|
Term
| Hypothesis testing (step 2/5) |
|
Definition
| The observations lead to a hypothesis that tries to explain the phenomena. A useful hypothesis is one that is testable because it makes specific predictions. |
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Term
| Hypothesis testing (step 3/5) |
|
Definition
| Experimentation is conducted to determine if the predictions are correct. |
|
|
Term
| Hypothesis testing (step 4/5) |
|
Definition
| The data from the experiment is analyzed. |
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|
Term
| Hypothesis testing (step 5/5) |
|
Definition
| The hypothesis is considered to be consistant with the data or is rejected. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Smallest functional unit of matter.
Forms all chemical substances.
Every specific type of atom is a chemical element. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1 of 3 subatomic particles.
Number of protons distinguishes one element from another.
Positive, found in nucleus, same number as electrons.
Mass relative to electron - 1,836 |
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|
Term
|
Definition
1 of 3 subatomic particles.
Neutral, found in nucleus, number can vary.
Mass relative to electron - 1,839 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1 of 3 subatomic particles.
Negative, found in orbitals, same number as protons. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Electrons in the outer shell that are available to combine with other atoms. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Equal to the number of Protons in the atom. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
Rows correspond to the number of electron shells.
Columns, from left to right indicate the numbers of electrons in the outer shell.
Elements within a column have similar bonding proporties. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Number of protons plus number of neutrons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Unit of measurement for atomic mass.
Carbon has an atomic mass of 12 Daltons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1 Mole of any element contains the same number of atoms -
6.022 x 10^23.
AKA Avagadro's number |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Multiple forms of an element that differ in the number of neutrons.
Atomic masses are averages of the weights of different isotopes of an element. |
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Term
|
Definition
| 2 or more atoms bonded together. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Contains chemical symbols of elements found in a molecule.
Subscript indicates how many of each atom are present. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| A molecule composed of two or more elements. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
Atoms share a pair of electrons.
Occurs between atoms whose outer shells are not full.
Strong chemical bond, electrons behave as if belonging to both atoms. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Atoms are most stable when outer shell is full.
For many atoms that number is 8 electrons.
Hydrogen fills it's outer shell with 2 electrons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Atoms don't always share electrons equally.
Electronegativity, the more electronegative an atom, the more it pulls shared electron toward it's self. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Hydrogen atom from one polar molecule attracted to an electronegative atom.
Individually weak, but strong in numbers.
Holds strands of DNA together. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
An atom of molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons.
Has a net electric charge.
Cation - net positive charge
Anion - net negative charge |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When a Cation binds to an Anion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Determined by the Bonds.
The 3D shape of a molecule influences the behavior of molecules in the body. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Occurs when one or more substances change into another substance.
All require energy source.
Require enzymes.
Occur in liquid environment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Catalysts for chemical reactions in living organisms. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Solvent - liquid.
Solutes - substances dissolved in solvent. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
Water is the solvent.
Ions and molecules that contain polar covalent bonds will dissolve in water. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
"water-loving"
Readily dissolve in water.
Ionic and polar covalent molecules. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"water-fearing"
Nonpolar molecules.
Do not dissolve in water.
Example - cholesterol |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Have both polar and nonpolar regions.
May dissolve in water to form micelles. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Polar region at the surface.
Nonpolar ends orient toward the interior of the micelle. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Water in living organisms |
|
Definition
Participates in chemical reactions (hydrolysis/dehydration).
Provides force or support.
Removes toxic waste components.
Evaporative cooling.
Cohesion and adhesion.
Surface tention. |
|
|
Term
| Acids and Bases in pure water |
|
Definition
| Acids are molecules that release hydrogen ions when they are dissolved into pure water. This increases the H+ Bases lower the H+ concentration of a solution. -Some release OH-, some bind H+ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Alkaline (Basic) Solution |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A solution's pH level can effect... |
|
Definition
The shapes and functions of molecules.
The rates of many chemical reactions.
The ability of two molecules to bind to each other.
The ability of ions or molecules to dissolve. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Help to keep a constant pH level.
Most organisms tolerate little change in pH.
Animals have buffers in their blood. |
|
|
Term
| 4 essential elements that compose the majority of living matter. |
|
Definition
| Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Organic Molecules contain Carbon.
Abundant in all living organisms. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Large, complex organic molecules. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
4 electrons in outer shell (can contain 4 more).
Can have up to 4 bonds (usually single or double).
Can have polar or nonpolar bonds. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Two structures with an identical molecular formula but different structures and characteristics. Structural isomers contain the same atoms but in different bonding relationships. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| change in positioning around double bond. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mirror image of another molecule. |
|
|
Term
| Condensation/Dehydration Reaction |
|
Definition
"removal" of water.
Links monomers to form polymers. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"addition" of water.
Polymers broken down into monomers. |
|
|
Term
| 4 major organic molecules and macromolecules |
|
Definition
| Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Composed predominantly of hydrogen and carbon.
Defining feature - nonpolar thus very insoluble in water. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Responsible for te storage, expression and transmission of genetic information.
Two classes (DNA & RNA) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and traces of others including sulfur.
Amino acids are the monomers
-Common structure with variable R-group.
-20 amino acids.
-Side-chain determines structure and function. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Simplest sugars, Most common with 5 or 6 Carbons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Glucose and galactose.
Stereoisomers - identical arrangement of bonds, but different arrangement of atoms. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharides.
Joined by dehydration or condensation (glycosidic bond).
Broken by hydrolysis.
Examples - sucrose, maltose, lactose |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Many monosaccharides linked together to for long polymers.
Examples - Energy storage- starch, glycogen. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
AKA triglycerides or triacylglycerols.
Formed by bonding glycerol to three fatty acids. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
All carbons are linked by single covalent bonds.
Tend to be solid at room temp. |
|
|
Term
| Fatty Acids (unsaturated) |
|
Definition
Contain one or more double bonds.
Tend to be liquid at room temp (oils). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Amphipathic molecule
-Phosphate region - polar, hydrophilic.
-Fatty acid chains - nonpolar, hydrophobic, tail.
-Form bilayer important in formation of cell membranes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Four interconnected rings of carbon atoms.
Usually not water soluble.
Small different in chemical struct can mean the difference between testosterone and estrogen. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Joined by dehydration of condensation reaction.
-Peptide bond.
-Forms polypeptides
-Proteins are made up of 1 or more polypeptides.
Broken apart by hydrolysis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Primary - Amino acid sequence (determined by DNA)
Secondary - Folding into compact structure
-Alpha - helix
-Beta - pleated sheet
Tertiary - further folding into 3D shape.
Quaternary - 2 or more polypeptides. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Proteins with multiple parts. |
|
|
Term
| 5 Factors promoting protein folding and stability |
|
Definition
1.Hydrogen bonds - many weak add to overall strong
2.Ionic bonds and polar reactions - different side chain charges may bond together.
3.Hydrophobic effects.
4.Van der Waal's forces - Weak attractions between atoms.
5.Disulfide bridges - Covalent bonds between 2 Cysteine side chains. |
|
|
Term
| Functional domains within Protein structures |
|
Definition
| Modules in proteins have distinct structure and functions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Deoxyribonucleic acid.
Stores genetic information coded in the sequence of their monomer building blocks. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Ribonucleic acid.
Involved in decoding genetic information into instructions for linking together a specific sequence of amin acids to form a polypeptide chain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An organic molecule that can be used to form larger molecules (polymers) consisting of many repeating units of the monomer. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A large molecule formed by linking many smaller molecules (monomers) together. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the importance of shape in macromolecules and give an example of the consequences of shape changes in molecules |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Summarize the interactions involved in protein shape and explain why temperature and pH affect protein shape |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
All living organisms are made up of one or more cells.
Cells are the smallest unit of life.
New cells only come from pre-existing cells via cell division. |
|
|
Term
| Magnification (microscope) |
|
Definition
| Ratio between the size of an image produced by a microscope and it's actual size. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ability to observe two adjacent objects as distinct from one another. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
How different one structure looks from another.
Enhance with dies. |
|
|
Term
2 groups of microscopes
(based on source of illumination) |
|
Definition
Light microscope - 0.2 um
Electron microscope - 2nm |
|
|
Term
| Electron microscope types |
|
Definition
Transmission (TEM)
Beam of electrons passes through sample (some deflected)
Scanning (SEM)
Sample coated with heavy metal (beam makes 3d image) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Simple structure.
Lack membrane enclosed nucleus. |
|
|
Term
| 2 Categories of Prokaryotic Cells |
|
Definition
Bacteria - abundant, most not harmful.
Archaea - less common, often found in extreme environments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Found only in Eukaryotes.
Allows different biochemical processes to occur in different regions of the cell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Plant cells do not possess - Lysosomes, Centrioles.
Animal cells do not possess - Cell wall, Central Vacuole, Chloroplasts. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Genetic material within an organism - DNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| All types and relative amount of proteins found in a cell at any given moment under specific conditions. |
|
|
Term
| Differential gene regulation |
|
Definition
Specific proteins found in one cell type may not be produced in another cells type.
Same proteins may be produced but different relative concentrations. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mRMA from a single gene may form different forms of a polypeptide (each with slightly different amino acid sequences) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| After synthesis, cells may slightly alter protein structure. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Region of a eukaryotic cell that is outside the cell organelles but inside the plasma membrane.
20-50% of cell volume.
Site of many chemical reactions.
Location of the Cytoskeleton.
Central coordinating region for many metabolic activities. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sum of all chemical reactions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Breakdown of a molecule into smaller components.
Energy utilization.
Synthesis of molecule building blocks. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Synthesis oc cellular molecules and macromolecules.
e.g. Synthesis of polysaccharides from sugars.
e.g. Protein synthesis from amino acids. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Process of polypeptide synthesis.
Information written in gene ultimately translated into the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Site of polypeptide synthesis (translation).
Transfer RNA (tRNA) - brings amino acids.
Messenger RMA (mRNA) - information to make a polypeptide. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Provides cell shape, organization and movement.
Network of three different type of protein filaments. |
|
|
Term
| Microtubules (cytoskeleton) |
|
Definition
Made of Tubulin.
Dynamic instability
In non-dividing animal cells microtubules formed from the Centriole (microtubule organizing center).
In plant and many protists centrioles are absent - microtubules created at many cites throughout cell. |
|
|
Term
| Dynamic Instability (Microtubules) (cytoskeleton) |
|
Definition
Oscillation between growing and shortening phases.
Important in various cell growth phases.
e.g. Shortening of chromosomes during cell division. |
|
|
Term
| Intermediate Filaments (cytoskeleton) |
|
Definition
10 nm in size
Form twisted rope-like structure.
Tention bearing filaments - help maintain cell shape
Made of several proteins
Desmins - muscle cells
Keratins - skin, intestines, kidney, hair, nails
Lamins - inner nuclear membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
AKA Microfilaments
Long, thin fibers - around 7nm in diameter.
Polar. Composed from Actin monomers.
Concentrated around the plasma membrane - provide strength, shape and movement to cell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Use ATP as a source of energy to promote movement.
Three kinds of movement -
-carrying cargo, attaching and causing filament to move, attaching and causing filament to bend. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Adenosine Triphosphate.
Hydrolyzed into ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) and Phosphate ion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Microtubules & motor proteins facilitate movement pf cellular appendages.
Flagella - long, present in singles or pairs.
Cilia - short, often cover all of part of a cell surface
Both have 2+9 internal structure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Network of membranes enclosing the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus , lysosomes and vacuoles.
Also includes plasma membrane.
May be directly connected or pass materials via vesicles. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Double membrane structure enclosing nucleus.
Outer membrane is continuous with E.R. membrane.
Nuclear pores provide passageways for molecules. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Protection, Organization, Replication and Expression of genetic material. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Composed or DNA and proteins = chromatin.
Proteins help make DNA fit inside the nucleus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Filamentous network.
Organizes chromosomes - each chromosome occupies a distinct (nonoverlapping) region. |
|
|
Term
| Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.) |
|
Definition
Network of membranes that form flattened, fluid filled tubules of cisternae.
can form over 1/2 of membranes in some cells.
E.R. membrane encloses a single compartment call the E.R. lumen. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Studded with Ribosomes - bumpy appearance.
Involved in protein synthesis and sorting.
Glycosylation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Attachment of carbohydrates to proteins. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Lacks ribosomes - smooth appearance.
Large surface area for key enzyms and metabolism.
Detoxification, Carb metabolism, calcium balance, synthesis and modification of lipids. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Stack of flattened, membrane-bound compartments.
Vesicles transport materials between stacks.
Three overlapping functions.
-Secretion - packages material into secretory vesicles.
-Processing - Glycosylation of proteins and lipids
-Protein sorting |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Found in animal cells.
Contain acid hydrolyses that preform hydrolysis.
Requires acidic condition (interion pH 4.8)
Autophagy - recycling |
|
|
Term
| Central Vacuoles (plants) |
|
Definition
Surrounded by tonoplast.
Storage - water enzymes proteins, inorganic ions.
Support plants. |
|
|
Term
| Contractile Vacuoles (protists) |
|
Definition
Water continually enters cell.
Vacuole increases in size. Sudden contraction expels water to outside of cell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Protists and white blood cells for degradation.
Contain enzymes that:
break down food.
Engulf bacterial cells - immune system. |
|
|
Term
| Peroxisomes - found in eukaryotic cells |
|
Definition
Single membrane fluid-filled lumen.
Catalyses reactions the break down molecules by removing hydrogen or adding oxygen.
Large amounts found in liver of animals.
Byproduct in hydrogen peroxide which is then broken down into water and oxygen. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Proteins in plasma membrane perform important functions affecting activities inside of cell. |
|
|
Term
| Plasma Membrans Functions (membrane transport) |
|
Definition
Essential nutrients or ions into cell.
Substances exported from cell.
Selectively permeable. |
|
|
Term
| Plasma Membrane Functions (Cell signaling) |
|
Definition
Sense environment changes.
Coordinating with other cells.
Signaling molecules bind to receptors (signal transduction pathway) |
|
|
Term
| Plasma Membrane Functions (Cell adhesion) |
|
Definition
Protein to Protein interactions.
Allows formation of tissues and organs.
Formation of multicellular organisms.
Allows cells to recognize each other. |
|
|
Term
| Semiautonomous organelles |
|
Definition
Can grow and divide to reproduce themselves.
Depend on other parts of the cell of their internal components.
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Primary role is to make ATP (powerhouse of cells)
Sugars, fats, amino acids broken down (release energy making ATP)
Some cells (muscles) may have a few thousand mitochondria.
Divide by binary fission. |
|
|
Term
| Chloroplasts - a kind of plastid (found in all plant and alge) |
|
Definition
Photosynthesis - Capture light energy to synthesize organic molecules such as glucose.
Outer and inner membrane with an inter membrane space and a thylakoid membrane. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Thylakoids can stack on each other fo form grana.
Stroma is inside the inner membrane, but outside the thylakoids. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Synthesize and store color pigments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Synthesize and store starch. |
|
|
Term
| Eukaryotic Protein sorting |
|
Definition
Sorting signals:
short trenches of amino acids direct proteins to correct destinations. |
|
|
Term
| Cotranslational Protein Sorting |
|
Definition
| Proteins are built partly before and partly after being sorted. |
|
|
Term
| Posttranslational Protein Sorting |
|
Definition
| Protein is built and then sorted to it's destination. |
|
|
Term
| 4 features shared by all cells |
|
Definition
| DNA, Cytoplasm, Cell membrane, Ribosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A theory that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from bacteria that took up residence within a primordial eukaryotic cell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Beginning parts of animal cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site where microtubules grow and centrioles are found. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Protein filaments that provide shape and aide in movement. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site of many metabolic pathways. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Area where most of the genetic material is organized and expressed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Passageway for molecules into and out of the nucleus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site of protein sorting and secretion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site of detoxification and lipid synthesis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site where hydrogen peroxide and other harmful molecules are broken down. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site of modification, sorting sorting and secretion of lipids and proteins. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Membrane that controls movement of substances into and out of the cell; site of cell signaling. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A complex of protein and DNA. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site of polypeptide synthesis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site where macromolecules are degraded. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site for ribosome subunit assembly. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Double membrane the encloses the nucleus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Beginning parts of plant cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site that provides storage; regulation of cell volume. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Structure that provides cell support. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Protein filaments that provide shape and aide in movement. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site of many metabolic pathways. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Area where most of the genetic material is organized and expressed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Passageway for molecules into and out of the nucleus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site of protein sorting and secretion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site of detoxification and lipid synthesis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site where hydrogen peroxide and other harmful molecules are broken down. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site of modification, sorting sorting and secretion of lipids and proteins. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Membrane that controls movement of substances into and out of the cell; site of cell signaling. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A complex of protein and DNA. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site of polypeptide synthesis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site for ribosome subunit assembly. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Double membrane the encloses the nucleus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Amphipathic nature of phospholipids |
|
Definition
| Have a hydrophobic (nonpolar) region and Hydrophilic (polar) fatty acyl tails. The talis face each other and form the interior of the membrane. |
|
|
Term
| Membrane is semi-fluid because... |
|
Definition
| The lipids and proteins embedded in the layer can move freely relative to one another. (fluid-mosaic model) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Any solution that causes a cell to shrink due to osmosis of water leaving the cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Any solution the causes a cell to swell when placed in it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Conditions in which the solute concentrations are on both sides of the plasma membrane are equal. (cell does not shrink of swell) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The transport of a substance across a membrane from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Moves a substance from an area of low concentration to high concentration of against the chemical gradient with the aide of a transport protein. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A transport protein provides a passageway for the substance to cross the membrane. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When a substance moves across a membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The movement of water across membranes to balance solute concentrations. Water diffuses from a solution that it hypotonic to hypertonic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Result in the breakdown of molecules into smaller components. (exergonic) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Involves the synthesis of larger molecules from small. (endergonic) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Chemical reactions that release free energy and occur spontaneously. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Chemical reactions that require an addition of free anergy and do not proceed spontaneously.
(ADP+P -> ATP) |
|
|
Term
| ATP hydrolysis in driving other reactions |
|
Definition
| Coupling ATP hydrolysis with other reactions can change a reaction that would have been endergonic to one that is exergonic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Enzymes lower the activation energy needed for the substrates to reach a transition state.
(APT + glucose -> Glucose-phosphate + ADP) |
|
|
Term
| Enzyme shape changes in enzyme-catalyzed reactions |
|
Definition
| Enzymes may donate amino acids to catalyze reactions, but the amino acids are returned to the enzyme after the reaction is complete. |
|
|
Term
| Cause of substrate specificity in enzymes |
|
Definition
| Conformational changes in the enzyme-substrate complex cause the substrate to bind tightly with the enzyme called an induced fit. Only after this can the reaction take place. |
|
|
Term
| Affects on enzymes - temperature |
|
Definition
| High temperatures may inhibit an enzyme's ability to function properly. Very high temperatures my cause it to become denatured and not at all functional. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Enzymes may not functional as well if the pH is altered from that which they normally function in. |
|
|
Term
| Affects on enzymes - inhibitors (competitive) |
|
Definition
| Molecules that bind to the active site on an enzyme and inhibit the ability of the substrate to bind. |
|
|
Term
| Affects on enzymes - inhibitors (noncompetitive) |
|
Definition
| Binds to noncovelently an enzyme at a location outside the active site (allosteric site) and inhibits the enzyme's function. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Can be used to make NAHD which can be used to produce ATP |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Respiration - Glycolysis yields what? |
|
Definition
2 pyruvate
2 ATP (substrate-level phosphorylation)
3 NADH
(occurs in cytosol) |
|
|
Term
| Respiration - Pyruvate breakdown yields what? |
|
Definition
2 acetyl group (2 carbons each)
2 CO2
2 NADH (redox with NAD+)
(occurs in mitochondrial matrix) |
|
|
Term
| Respiration - Citric acid cycle yields what? |
|
Definition
4 CO2
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
(occurs in mitochondrial matrix) |
|
|
Term
| Respiration - Oxidative Phosphorylation |
|
Definition
Redox reactions remove electrons from NADH and FADH2 to produce an H+ electrochemical gradient. Chemiosmosis uses H+ gradient to synthesize ATP from ADP & Pi (30-34 ATP)
(occurs along the wall of the mitochondrial matrix) |
|
|
Term
| What receives electrons in anaerobic respiration? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Organic molecules are broken down without any net oxidation. |
|
|
Term
| What are two examples of fermentation? |
|
Definition
Lactate production (muscle cells)
Ethanol production (yeast) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An organism that cannot produce their own organic molecules and thus must obtain organ food from other organisms. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An organism that has metabolic pathways that use energy from either inorganic molecules of light (photoautotrophs) to make organic molecules. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Read processes in book (page 157) |
|
|
Term
| What colors of light are most effective for photosynthesis? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What colors of light are least effective for photosynthesis? |
|
Definition
| Green -> yellow (500-600 nm) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A response by a living cell to a change in it’s environment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In autocrine signaling, a cell secretes signaling molecules that binds to receptors on it’s own surface. This may affect neighboring cells of the same type. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a signaling molecule transmitted from cell and inhibited by light. (Darwin and plants) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Genetically predetermined cell death. (occurs in eukaryotes)
-Cell shrinks due to destruction of nucleus and cytoskeleton.
-Plasma membrane forms blebs.
-Different pathways have been discovered that lead to Apoptosis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inhibits phosphodiesterase (causes heart to beat faster) |
|
|
Term
| Contact-dependent signaling |
|
Definition
| Some molecules are bound to the surface of cells and provide a signal to other cells that make contact with the surface of that cell. The cell has a membrane-bound signaling molecule that receptors on the surface of other cells can recognize. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| may be synthesized by adenylyl cyclase via ATP. (example of 2nd messenger) (p.186) |
|
|
Term
| Direct intercellular signaling |
|
Definition
| In multicellular organisms, cells adjacent to each other may have contacts (cell junctions) that enable them to pass ions, signaling molecules from cytosol to cytosol. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Signaling that covers long distances using hormones. Hormones secreted into the bloodstream can affect virtually all cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Fight-or-flight hormone. Acts differently on different cells:
-Promotes breakdown of glycogen in skeletal muscle cells
-Relaxes airways in lungs |
|
|
Term
| First (primary) messengers |
|
Definition
| The small molecules or ions that bind surface receptors on the plasma membrane of a cell. (p. 186) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| They activate adenylyl cyclase and they activate phospholipase C |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cause a rapid increase in the expression of many genes in mammals. (involved in cancer) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An enzyme that transfers a phosphate group to another molecule |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| signaling molecule that binds noncovelently with high specificity to receptor causing a conformational change. (creates a ligand-receptor complex). Receptors do not change the ligand like enzymes and substrates. (p.177) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A specific cell secretes a signaling molecule that does not affect the cell secreting the signal but instead influences the behavior of target cells in close proximity. Typically short duration. Example - Synaptic signaling - Neurotransmitters. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An enzyme that removes a phosphate group from another molecule |
|
|
Term
| Receptor tyrosine kinases |
|
Definition
| category of enzyme-linked receptor. Recognize various type of signaling molecules (animals only) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small molecules or ions that relay signals inside the cell. (speed and size & amplification) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| agents that influence the properties of cells. Affects the conformation of a receptor, leading to a response in the cell. (ex. Glucose acts as a signal to yeast to increase transporters and enzymes.) |
|
|
Term
| Enzyme-inked receptors... |
|
Definition
| function by phosphorylation of a protein from ATP in their intracellular domain. (p.182) |
|
|
Term
| Occurs during the signal transduction phase in G protein activation... |
|
Definition
| Promotion of cellular responses due to dissociation of activated (Alpha) subunit and (Beta/Gamma) subunit. (p. 182-183) |
|
|
Term
| The receptor for the steroid hormone estrogen is found... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Cell-to-cell communication:
Direct intercellular communication |
|
Definition
| cell junctions between cell are able to pass signaling molecules from cell to cell |
|
|
Term
Cell-to-cell communication:
Contact-dependent signaling |
|
Definition
| Signaling molecules on the surface of cells make contact with adjacent receptors on other cells |
|
|
Term
| Cell-to-cell communication: Autocrine signaling |
|
Definition
| A cell secretes signaling molecules that bind to receptors on it’s own surface but make also affect adjacent cells |
|
|
Term
Cell-to-cell communication:
Paracrine signaling |
|
Definition
| A cell secretes signaling molecules that are aimed at adjacent target cells. (ex. Neurotransmitters / synaptic signaling.) |
|
|
Term
| Cell-to-cell communication: Hormones |
|
Definition
| Hormones travel long distances and affect many cells. Can last a longer period of time than other forms of signaling. (steroid hormone receptors are intracellular) |
|
|
Term
| Signal Response - Receptor activation (1) |
|
Definition
| A signaling molecule attaches to a receptor and causes a conformational change. (usually an activation of enzymes). |
|
|
Term
| Signal Response - Signal transduction (2) |
|
Definition
| The initial signal is changed to another signal inside the cell. Signal Transduction Pathway - the series of changes proteins go through as a result of the signal. |
|
|
Term
| Signal response - Cellular response (3) |
|
Definition
-can cause different responses in the cell by affecting different components:
i. Enzymes - Altered metabolism or other cell functions.
ii. Structural proteins - Altered cell shape and/or movement.
iii. Transcription factor - Altered gene expression, which changes the types and the amounts of proteins in the cell. |
|
|
Term
| Cell surface receptors - Enzyme-linked receptors |
|
Definition
| Has extracellular domain (allows for signal binding) and intercellular domain (has a catalytic function). Many function as protein-kinases: enzymes that transfer a phosphate group from an ATP to a specific amino acid in a protein. |
|
|
Term
| Cell surface receptors - G-Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) |
|
Definition
| Typically contain 7 trans-membrane segments and interact with G Proteins. Called G Protein because can bind with GTP or GDT. Creates GTP from GDT and P. |
|
|
Term
| Cell surface receptors - Ligand-Gated Ion Channels |
|
Definition
| Ligand allows receptor to open and allows the flow of ions through the membrane. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Functions as a protease (an enzyme that digests other proteins) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| enzymes that transfer a phosphate group from an ATP to a specific amino acid in a protein. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an enzyme that digests other proteins. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The function of the extracellular matrix (ECM) in animals is... |
|
Definition
-to provide strength
-to provide structural support
-to organize cells and other body parts
-cell signaling |
|
|
Term
| The protein found in the ECM of animals that provides strength and resistance to tearing when stretched is... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The polysaccharide that forms the hard outer covering of many invertebrates is... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The extension sequence found in procollagen polypeptides does what? |
|
Definition
-causes procollagen to form a triple helix.
-prevents procollagen forming large collagen fibers. |
|
|
Term
| The dilated state of plasmodesmata allows the passage of... |
|
Definition
-water
-ions
-small molecules
-macromolecules and viruses |
|
|
Term
| Gap junctions of animal cells differ from the plasmodesmata of plant cells in that... |
|
Definition
| gap junctions are formed by specialized proteins that form channels through the membranes of adjacent cells but plasmodesmata cannot allow the same type of exchange. |
|
|
Term
| What is involved in the process of tissue and organ formation in multicellular organisms? (6 processes) |
|
Definition
-cell division
-cell growth
-cell differentiation
-cell connection formations
-cell migration
-apoptosis |
|
|
Term
| The tissue type common to animals that functions in the conduction of electrical signals is... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A type of tissue that is rich in ECM or has cells with a thick cell wall would be... |
|
Definition
-ground tissue in plants
-connective tissue in animals |
|
|
Term
| Dermal tissue of plants is similar to _______ tissue of animals. |
|
Definition
-epithelial
-they both provide a covering for the organism |
|
|
Term
| The epithelial tissue of animals and the dermal tissue of plants have special characteristics that... |
|
Definition
| limit the movement of material between cell layers |
|
|
Term
| The ______ tissue of plants and the ________ tissue on animals provide structural support of the organism. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The extracellular matrix is... |
|
Definition
a network of material that forms a complex meshwork outside of animal cells.
-Plant cells are surrounded by cell walls. |
|
|
Term
| ________ and ________ are the major constituants of animal's ECM. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the ECM proteins and polysaccarides provide... (4 things) |
|
Definition
-strength
-structural support
-organization
-cell signaling |
|
|
Term
| Adhesive proteins such as ________ and _______ help adhere cells to the ECM. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the EMC, __________ fibers provide tensile strength and _______ fibers allow regions of the body to stretch. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are... |
|
Definition
| polysaccarides of repeating disaccharide units that give a gel-like character to the ECM. |
|
|
Term
| In plants, the primary cell wall is composed largely of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The three common types of cell junctions in animals are... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The two common types of cell junctions in plants are... |
|
Definition
| middle lamella, plasmodesmata |
|
|
Term
| The four types of anchoring junctions are... |
|
Definition
-adherens junctions
-desmosomes
-hemidesmosomes
-focal adhesions |
|
|
Term
| The two types of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are... |
|
Definition
Cadherins - link cells to one another
Integrins - link cells to the ECM |
|
|
Term
| Tight junctions between cells, composed of _________ and ________ prevent the leakage of material across a layer of cells. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The cells walls of adjacent plant cells are cemented together via ____________. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A group of cells that have a similar structure and function. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| composed of two or more tissues and carries out a particular function or functions. |
|
|
Term
| What six processes produce tissues and organs? |
|
Definition
| cell division, cell growth, differentiation, migration, apoptosis, the formation of cell connections |
|
|
Term
| The four general kinds of tissue found in animals are... |
|
Definition
| epithelial, connective, nervous, muscle |
|
|
Term
| The three general kinds of tissues found in plants are... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ________ and ________ form layers of cells that are highly connected. These layers can be one cell thick or several cells thick. They serve as protective coverings. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glycosaminogylcans (GAGs) are... |
|
Definition
| polysaccarides of repeating disaccaride units. (give ECM gel-like character) |
|
|
Term
| Proteoglycans consists of... |
|
Definition
| a core protein, surrounded by GAGs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| DNA allows for physical traits to be passed from generation to generation. Must be able to: (4 things) |
|
Definition
1. Carry genetic information - must contain all the necessary information to replicate the organism.
2. Undergo replication - be copied with high degree of accuracy.
3. Undergo transmission - must be transferable from parent to offspring.
4. Allow for genetic variation - variation within and between species must be possible. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| One unit of DNA contains _____ base pairs. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Opposing DNA strands run:
-Parallel?
-Antiparallel? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Meselson and Stahl used density studies to prove DNA replication is... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Avery, McCarthy and MacLeod did what four things? |
|
Definition
-Biochemically isolated macromolecules from Griffiths S-Strain bacteria.
-Based their work on Griffiths.
-Concluded DNA is genetic material.
-Added DNA and RNA digesting enzymes to samples to keep trace elements from altering results. |
|
|
Term
| Franklin used x-ray crystallography to... |
|
Definition
| figure the double helix shape of DNA. |
|
|
Term
| Erwin Chargoff discovered what? |
|
Definition
| Analyzed amounts of bases and discovered amounts related. (A=T/U and G=C) |
|
|
Term
| Frederick Griffith and bacteria |
|
Definition
-Streptococcus pneumoniae
-Strains that secrete capsules look smooth (S) and can cause fatal infections in mice.
-Strains that look rough ® do not secrete capsules, infections are not fatal.
-Mice injected with heat-killed type S survive.
-Mice injected with live R and heat-killed S die.
-Blood contains living type S (transformation). |
|
|
Term
| Hershey and Chase - T2 virus infecting E. Coli |
|
Definition
-DNA found inside capsid
-Shearing force of blender will separate the phage coat from the bacteria.
-35S will label proteins only, 32P will label DNA only.
-Results support DNA jets injected and in the genetic material. |
|
|
Term
| Humans have ______ or more DNA polymerases |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Nucleotides: the building blocks of DNA (& RNA). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A strand of DNA - nucleotides linked covalently. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Two strands forma double helix (linked via hydrogen bonds). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| DNA associates with different proteins to form chromosomes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Genome: a complete complement of an organism’s genetic material. |
|
|
Term
| DNA Replication: Bacteria |
|
Definition
| Circular DNA, one point of replication. |
|
|
Term
| DNA Replication: Eukaryotes |
|
Definition
| Multiple origins or replication. |
|
|
Term
| DNA leading strand synthesis is ________, lagging strand synthesis is _______. |
|
Definition
| continuous, discontinuous |
|
|
Term
| DNA Replication 1 - DNA helicase... |
|
Definition
| binds to one strand of DNA at the replication fork and travels in the 5’ to 3’ direction using ATP to separate the strands. |
|
|
Term
| DNA Replication 2 - DNA Topoisomerase... |
|
Definition
in responsible for relieving the supercoiling caused by the unwinding of the double helix by DNA helicase.
(enzyme) |
|
|
Term
| DNA Replication 3 - Single-strand binding proteins... |
|
Definition
| coat each strand to keep them from binding back together. |
|
|
Term
| DNA Replication 4 - DNA Primase... |
|
Definition
| synthesizes short RNA primers. (start points for synthesis) |
|
|
Term
| DNA Replication 5 - DNA polymerase III... |
|
Definition
travels in a 5’ to 3’ direction on the template strand as it synthesizes the adjacent strand in a 3’ to 5’ direction. (Deoxynucleoside Triphosphates, two phosphates bonds are broken and energy is used to create the covalent bonds)
-Cannot begin DNA synthesis without primers (made of RNA) from DNA primase. (primers get removed and replaced by DNA polymerase I)
-Can work only in 5’ to 3’ direction (because of phosphates) |
|
|
Term
| DNA Replication 6 - DNA Ligase... |
|
Definition
| joins adjacent DNA fragments. (including Okazaki Fragments) |
|
|
Term
| DNA Replication 7 - Telomerase |
|
Definition
| prevents chromosome shortening by attaching many copies of a DNA repeat sequence (telomeres) to the ends of chromosomes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Series of short nucleotide sequences repeated at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes.
-Protects the end of the chromosomes
-Prevents fusion with other chromosomes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-A discrete unit of genetic material.
-Human somatic cells have 46 chromosomes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-A DNA-Protein complex.
-What chromosomes are made of. |
|
|
Term
| 1st level of DNA compaction: |
|
Definition
-DNA wraps around 8 histone proteins to form nucleosome.
-Histones have a net positive charge.
-146 to 147 nucleotides.
-Shortens length of DNA 7 fold. |
|
|
Term
| 2nd level of DNA compaction: |
|
Definition
-30nm fiber.
-Current model suggests asymmetric, 3D zigzag of nucleotides.
-Shortens another 7 fold. |
|
|
Term
| 3rd level of DNA compaction: |
|
Definition
-Radial loop domains.
-Loops can be 25,000 to 200,000 nucleotides in length. |
|
|
Term
| Heterochromatin (level of chromosome compaction) |
|
Definition
| Highly compacted due to radial loop domains. |
|
|
Term
| Euchromatin (level of chromosome compaction) |
|
Definition
| Less compact - radial loop domains are not compact. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-1908 - Proposed relationship between genes and the production of enzymes. - Studied patients with metabolic defects.
- Hypothesized disease due to missing enzyme. - Knew it had a recessive pattern of inheritance (need defect from both parents) -Patients missing gene that encodes for Phenylalaine Hydroxylase - “inborn error of metabolism” - Structure and function of genetic material was unknown at the time of his work. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Patient’s body accumulates abnormal levels of homogentisic acid (alkapton).
-Causes damage to cartilage
-Damage to heart valves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-became aware of Garrod’s work in early 1940s
-Studied Neurospora crassa (common bread mold)
-Only carbon source (sugar), inorganic salts and biotin needed for growth.
-Enzyme synthesizes molecules it needs
-Mutant strains unable to grow unless supplemented
-Their hypothesis - A single mutation would result in the requirement for a single type of vitamin or supplement.
-Stimulated research into other substances including arginine
-Isolated several mutants requiring arginine for growth
-Wild-type can grow without the added supplements
-Types 1,2,3 require addition of a supplement
-Beadle and Tatum concluded that single gene controls the synthesis of a single enzyme. |
|
|
Term
| One gene = one enzyme hypothesis |
|
Definition
-Beadle and Tatum concluded that single gene controls the synthesis of a single enzyme.
-Hypothesis has been modified
-Enzymes are only a single category of cellular proteins, genes also code for other proteins.
-Some proteins composed of one or more polypeptides
-More accurate to say one gene encodes one polypeptide
-Hemoglobin composed of 4 polypeptides, each required for proper function
-NEW - One gene = one polypeptide |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Proposed by Francis Crick in 1958
Transcription > Translation
(DNA > RNA > Protein) |
|
|
Term
| Transcription (part of central dogma) |
|
Definition
-Produces an RNA copy or transcript of a gene
-Structural genes produce messenger RNA (mRNA) that specifies the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide. |
|
|
Term
| Translation (part of central dogma) |
|
Definition
| Process of synthesizing a specific polypeptide on (at) a ribosome. |
|
|
Term
| 1st stage of transcription |
|
Definition
Initiation - recognition step
-In Bacteria (only), sigma factor causes RNA polymerase to recognize prometer region
-Stage is complete when DNA strands separate near promoter to form an open complex. |
|
|
Term
| 2nd stage of transcription |
|
Definition
Elongation - RNA polymerase synthesizes RNA
-Template or coding strand used for RNA synthesis (opposing strand not used)
-Synthesized 5’ to 3’ (template read 3’ to 5’)
-Uracil substituted for Thymine |
|
|
Term
| 3rd stage of transcription |
|
Definition
Termination - RNA polymerase reaches termination sequence
- Causes RNA polymerase and RNA to disassociate from DNA |
|
|
Term
| RNA processing (Bacteria vs. Eukaryotic) |
|
Definition
-Bacterial mRNA proceeds directly to translation
-Eukaryotic pre-mRNA must be processed into mature mRNA |
|
|
Term
| RNA procession - eukaryotes (only) |
|
Definition
-Introns - transcribed but not translated (found in many eukaryotic genes)
-Discovered in the 1970s
-Considered ‘junk’ DNA
-Exons - coding sequence bound into mature mRNA |
|
|
Term
| RNA transcription - Splicing - eukaryotes (only) |
|
Definition
| removes introns and connects exons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Removes introns precisely
-Complex molecule
-Composed of snRNPs (small nuclear RNA) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
if a strand is spliced in a different way may produce a different product
-rRNA and tRNA are self-splicing (includes ribosome molecules) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-3' end
-Consists of 100-200 nucleotides
-Increases stability and lifespan in cytosol
-Not encoded in genome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -5' -Modified guanosine -Needed for proper exit from nucleus and binding to ribosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Coded mRNA is used to create polypeptide by ribosomes
-Cells use a lot of energy for this (E.Coli =90%)
-Requires mRNA, tRNA and ribosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
groups of three base pairs in mRNA
-Most codons specify a specific amino acid (also start and stop codon s)
-Degenerate - more than one code can specify the same amino acid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-codon: AUG
-5' - binds with ribosomal binding site. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Different tRNA molecules encoded by different -Common features of all tRNA
-Cloverleaf shape
-Anticodon
-Acceptor system for binding to specific amino acid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Has Anticodon - 3 RNA nucleotide that recognizes mRNA specifically
-Proper Amino acid attaches to opposing binding site |
|
|
Term
| Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase |
|
Definition
Catalyzes attachment of amino acids to tRNA
-One for each of the 20 amino acids
-Ability to recognize and attach has been called ‘second genetic code’ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tRNA with amino acid attached |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Prokaryotes have one kind of ribosome
-Eukaryotes have distinct ribosomes in different cellular compartments
-Found most abundantly in cytosol
-Also in mitochondria and chloroplasts (similar to bacterial ribosomes) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Specifically target and shut down ribosomes in bacteria only |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Determines ribosome shape |
|
|
Term
| Ribosomal Structure - A site |
|
Definition
| aminoacyl site (1st site/where tRNA enters) |
|
|
Term
| Ribosomal Structure - P site |
|
Definition
| peptidyl site (where amino acids are joined together) |
|
|
Term
| Ribosomal Structure - E site |
|
Definition
| exit site (tRNA is released) |
|
|
Term
| Stages of Translation - 1. Initiation |
|
Definition
-mRNA, tRNA and ribosomal units form a complex
I. Requires ribosomal initiation factors
II. Requires energy input from GTP via hydrolysis |
|
|
Term
| Stages of Translation - 2. Elongation (1st of 3) |
|
Definition
| I. Aminoacly tRNA brings a new amino acid to the a Site. i. Binding occurs due to codon/anticodon reaction. ii. Elongation factors hydrolyze GTP to provide energy to bind tRNA to A site. iii. Peptidyl tRNA is in the P site. iv. Aminoacyl tRNA is in the A site. |
|
|
Term
| Stages of Translation - 2. Elongation (2nd of 3) |
|
Definition
II. A peptide bond is formed between the amino acid at the A site and the growing peptide chain.
i. The polypeptide is removed from the tRNA in the P site and transferred to the amino acid at the A site - peptidyl transfer reaction.
ii. rRNA catalyzes peptide bond formation - ribosome is a ribozyme. |
|
|
Term
| Stages of Translation - 2. Elongation (3rd of 3) |
|
Definition
| III. Movement of the ribosome toward the 3’ end of the mRNA by (length of one codon). i. Shifts tRNA to E and P sites. ii. Next codon in now at the A site. iii. Used (uncharged tRNA) exits from E site. |
|
|
Term
| Stages of Translation - 3. Termination |
|
Definition
-Ribosome reaches a stop codon. Polypeptide is released and units disassemble.
I. Stop codon arrives at A site.
II. Release factor binds to stop codon at the A site.
III. Bond between polypeptide and tRNA hydrolyze to release polypeptide.
IV. Ribosomal subunits and release factors disassociate. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-A heritable change in the genetic material
-Essential to the continuity of life (source of variation for natural selection)
-New mutations more likely to be harmful than beneficial (may cause death and not be passed on)
-DNA repair system reverse DNA damage (attempt to fix mutation before it becomes permanent) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Affects only a single base pair
1. change base sequence (substitution)
2. add or remove nucleotide(s) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Does not alter the amino acid sequence (even with substitution the same amino acid is coded for) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Changes a single amino acid in a polypeptide
-May not alter function if new amino acid is similar to original (Galamate to Asparate) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-The result of a single amino acid substitution
-(BETA)-globin gene
-Change in amino acid sequence causes blood cells to become sickle shaped(Glu to Val) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Change from a normal codon to a stop or a termination codon (UAA, UGA, UAG)
-Produces truncated polypeptide (results in reduced or no function) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Addition of deletion of nucleotides that are not multiples of 3
-protein function likely to be completely inhibited
-Results in completely different amino acid sequence downstream |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A cell that fuses with another cell during fertilization. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Mutation in a gamete
-Because all other cells rise from these cells, a mutation this early on will cause all other cells to be affected. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Can occur at any time and often lead to 'patches' of affected cells. (referred to as mosaic) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Spontaneous mutations result from abnormalities in biological processes -Rates vary from species to species and from gene to gene |
|
|
Term
| Expected rate of mutation? |
|
Definition
| 1 mutation for every 1 million genes |
|
|
Term
| Induced mutations are brought on by environmental agents |
|
Definition
-Mutation rate higher than spontaneous mutation
-Mutagens are chemical or physical agents (can alter DNA in various ways)
-Disrupt pairing by:
-Modifying nucleotide structure
-Nitrous acid deaminates bases so that modified bases to not pair with proper nucleotide
-Using base analogue similar to particular bases
-Akylating bases
-Interfering with replication - inserts between bases and distorts helix |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Has high energy and can penetrate deeply into biological materials to create free radicals
-X-rays and gamma rays
-Cause base deletions or breaks in one or both DNA strands |
|
|
Term
| UV rays can cause formation of... |
|
Definition
-A thymine dimer causing gaps or incorporation of
incorrect bases (two adjacent thymine bases become covalently bonded) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A test to determine the mutagenic activity of chemicals by observing whether they cause mutations in sample bacteria. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-All organisms must have the ability to repair changes that occur in DNA to minimize mutation
-Requires: DNA damage to be detected and Repair or DNA damage
1. Direct Repair
2. Altered DNA strand removed and replaced
3. Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER) |
|
|
Term
| Types of DNA repair - 1. Direct Repair |
|
Definition
| Enzyme removes modification |
|
|
Term
| Types of DNA repair - 2. Altered DNA strand removed and new segment synthesized |
|
Definition
-more common than direct repair
- “Methyl-directed mismatch repair”
-base-pair mismatch
-DNA strand is removed
-replaced from complementary strand |
|
|
Term
Types of DNA repair - 3. Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER)
Can repair what 4 things? |
|
Definition
| -Most common DNA repair -Can repair: -UV damage -chemically modified bases -missing bases -Crosslinks such as thymine dimers |
|
|
Term
| Types of DNA repair - 3. Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER) |
|
Definition
-Region encompassing several nucleotides in the damage strand is removed from DNA
-Intact, undamaged strand is used as a template for re-synthesis of a normal complimentary strand
-Found in all Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes
-Four Key proteins: UvrA, UvrB, UvrC, UvrD
-involved in ultraviolet repair |
|
|
Term
| NER and human genetic disease |
|
Definition
-NER system was discovered in humans by the analysis of genetic diseases that affect DNA repair
-Xeroderma pipmentosum (XP)
-Cockayne’s syndrome (CS)
-PIBIDS
-Photosensitivity is a common characteristic in all three syndromes because of an inability to repair UV-induced lesions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Disease of multicellular organisms that is characterized by uncontrolled cell devision.
-1.5 million americans diagnosed each year
-In about 10% of cancers, a higher predisposition to develop the disease is an inherent trait
-Most cancers (90%) do no involve genetic changes that are passed down from parent to child
-Most cancers are caused by mutagens
-A few viruses are known to cause cancer (Rous sarcoma virus (RSV)) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-About 80% of all human cancers are related to exposure to carcinogens
-Agents that increase the likelihood of developing cancer
-Most carcinogens, such as UV light and certain chemicals in cigarette smoke, are mutagens that promote genetic changes in somatic cells.
-DNA alterations can lead to effects on gene expression that ultimately affect cell division and thereby lead to cancer. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Tumor may begin a benign or pre-cancerous (do not invade or spread)
-Malignant stage
-Lost normal cell growth regulation
-Invasive - can invade healthy tissues
-Metastatic - can migrate to other parts of the body
-Left untreated, will cause death of the organism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Cell division regulated by hormones called grown factors
-Bind to cell surface and initiate cascade leading to cell division which includes activating specific genes
-Mutations in genes producing cell growth signaling proteins can change them into oncogenes producing abnormally high level of activity in some proteins
-An oncogene may promote cancer by keeping the cell division signaling pathway in a permanent ‘on’ position
-In some cancers the amount of gene product is abnormally high
-In others, the gene produces a functionally hyperactive protein |
|
|
Term
| Ras - intracellular signaling protein (relate to oncogenes) |
|
Definition
-GTPase that hydrolyzes GTP to GDP -When GTP is bound, Ras promotes cell division
-Oncogenic mutations may decrease ability of Ras to hydrolyze GTP or exchange GDP for GTP factor (both keep signaling pathway on). |
|
|
Term
| Proto-oncogene (also see table 14.7) |
|
Definition
-Normal gene that, if mutated, can become an oncogene
-4 common genetic changes |
|
|
Term
| Proto-oncogene 1 - Missense Mutation |
|
Definition
| -Chemical mutations have been shown to cause missense mutations leading to cancer |
|
|
Term
| Proto-oncogene 2 - Gene Amplifications |
|
Definition
-Abnormal increase in copy number results in too much of the encoded protein
-Many human cancers are associated with the amplification of some proto-oncogenes |
|
|
Term
| Proto-oncogene 3 - Chromosomal translations |
|
Definition
-Two different chromosomes break, and the ends of the chromosomes fuse incorrectly
-Very specific types of chromosomal translocations have been identified in certain tumors
-Chimeric genes are composed of two genes fragments fused together |
|
|
Term
| Proto-oncogene 4 - Retroviral Insertions |
|
Definition
-Viral DNA may insert into a host chromosome in such a way that a viral promoter and response elements are next to a proto-oncogene. (may result in the over-expression of the proto-oncogene, thereby promoting cancer)
-Alternatively, a virus may cause cancer if it carries an oncogene in the viral genome |
|
|
Term
| Tumor-supressor gene functions (2) |
|
Definition
1. Proteins that maintain the integrity of the genome by monitoring and/or repairing alterations in the genome. (Checkpoint proteins check the integrity of the genome and prevent a cell from progressing past a certain point in the cell cycle).
2. Proteins that are negative regulators or inhibitors of cell division. (Function is necessary to properly halt cell division otherwise cell division in abnormally accelerated). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Proteins called cyclins and cyclin-dependent protein kinases (sdks) are responsible for advancing a cell through the four phases of the cell cycle. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Responsible for monitoring the integrity of the genome and preventing it's progression throught the cell cycle if abnormalities are detected. |
|
|
Term
| Cancer is a series of changes (3) |
|
Definition
-Cancer usually requires multiple genetic changes to the same cell
-Begin with a benign genetic alteration that over time, with additional mutations lead to malignancy
-Malignancy can continue to accumulate genetic changes that make it even more difficult to treat |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Diagnosed in approximately 170,000 men and women each year in the US
-1.2 million cases diagnosed worldwide
-Nearly 90% of these cases are caused by smoking and are preventable
-Unlike other cancers for which early diagnosis is possible, lung cancer is usually detected only after it has become advanced and is difficult, if impossible to cure.
-The five-years survival rate of a lung cancer patient is 15% |
|
|
Term
| Leukemia can be caused by... |
|
Definition
| gene amplification of a proto-oncogene |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| number, size and form of chromosomes in actively dividing cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Cell divides into two cells identical to mother cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Phase of the cell cycle during which the chromosomes are de-condensed and found in the nucleus
-When G1, S, G2 phases happen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Cell accumulates molecular changes that cause progression through the cell cycle
-Passes restriction point where cell is committed to enter S phase
-If cell is not ‘in shape’ to divide, division stops at this step |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Chromosomes replicate
-After replication, 2 copies stay joined to each other and are called sister chromatids
-Human cells now temporarily have 92 chromatids |
|
|
Term
| G2 (interphase) - Mitosis |
|
Definition
| -Cell synthesizes proteins needed during mitosis and meiosis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Chromosomes have already replicated to produce 12 chromatids, joined as six sister pairs
-Nuclear membrane dissociates into small vesicles
-Chromatids condense into highly compacted structures (readily visible by light microscopy) |
|
|
Term
| Prometaphase (3) - Mitosis |
|
Definition
-Nuclear envelope completely fragments
-Mitotic spindle is fully formed during this phase
-Centrioles move apart and demarcate the two poles
-Spindle fibers interact with sister chromatids
-Two kinetochores on each pair of sister chromatids are attached to kinetochore microtubules from opposite sides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Pairs of sister chromatids are aligned along a plane halfway between the poles called the metaphase plate (organized into a single row)
-When alignment is complete, the cell is in metaphase |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Connections between the pairs of sister chromatids are broken
-Each chromatid , now an individual chromosome, is linked to only one of the two poles by one or more kinetochore microtubules
-Kinetochore microtubules shorten, pulling chromosomes toward the pole to which attached
-Two poles more farther apart as overlapping polar microtubules lengthen (push on each other) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Chromosomes have reached their respective poles and decondense
-Nuclear membranes now re-form to produce two separate nuclei |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-In most cases mitosis is quickly followed by cytokinesis
-Two nuclei are segregated into separate daughter cells
-Process of cytokinesis is quite different in animals and plants
-Animals - cleavage furrow constricts like a drawstring to separate cells
-Plants - cell plate forms a cell wall between the two daughter cells (made of vesciles from golgi apparatus) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-responsible for organizing and sorting the chromosomes during mitosis
-Astral - position spindle in cell
-Polar - Separate to poles
-Kinetochore - attached to kinetochore bound to centromeres of each chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Sexual reproduction requires a fertilization event in which two haploid gametes unite to create a diploid cell called a zygote.
-A process by which haploid cells are produced from a diploid cell. (cells going through meiosis must go through G1, S and G2 before beginning) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Homologous pairs of chromatids associate together and Cross Over (swap pieces of genetic material). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| After crossing over, chromosomes stay attached at crossing over site called a chiasma |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Physical exchange between chromosome pieces of the bivalent complex. (increases genetic variation).
Process is carefully controlled by cells. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Replicated chromosomes condense and bivalents form as the nuclear membrane breaks down. |
|
|
Term
| Prometaphase 1 - Meiosis 1 |
|
Definition
| Spindle apparatus complete and the chromatids are attached to kinetochore microtubules. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Bivalents are organized along metaphase plate. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Connections between bivalents break, but not the connections that hold sister chromatids together.
-Each joined pair of chromatids migrates to the pole. |
|
|
Term
| Telophase 1 and cytokinesis - Meiosis 1 |
|
Definition
| Sister chromatids have reached their respective poles and decondense. Nuclear membranes form. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-No S phase between Meiosis 1 & 2.
-Sorting events are similar to mitosis, but concludes with haploid cells because there was no S-phase after meiosis 1. |
|
|
Term
| # of chromosomes - Humans |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| # of chromosomes - Fruit Fly |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| # of chromosomes - Tomato |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Stains chromosomes for G banding identification |
|
|
Term
| Location of a Metacentric centromere is where? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Location of a Submetracentric centromere is where? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Location of a Acrocentric centromere is where? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Location of a Telocentric centromere is where? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Chromosomal mutation - Duplication |
|
Definition
| Selection occurs 2 or more times in a row. |
|
|
Term
| Chromosomal mutation - Inversion |
|
Definition
| Change in direction along a single chromosome |
|
|
Term
| Chromosomal mutation - Translocation |
|
Definition
-One segment becomes attached to another chromosome.
-Simple or reciprocal. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Alteration of particular chromosomes.
-Total number not an exact multiple of a set.
-(if happens in eukaryotes is detrimental)
-(5-10% of all human eggs result in and embryo with abnormal chromosome number) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Normal 2 copies of a chromosome plus a 3rd.
-2n+1 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Missing one of the normal copies of a chromosomes
-2n-1 |
|
|
Term
| Nondisjunction (chromosomes) |
|
Definition
-Chromosomes do not sort properly during cell division.
-During meiosis, can produce gametes with too many chromosomes of too few. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Tested around 29,000 Peas |
|
|
Term
| Advantages to testing peas |
|
Definition
-Many testable characteristics and traits.
-Normally self-fertilizing
-Easy to true-breed
-Large flowers make for easy crossing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Flower color
-Flower position
-Seed color
-Seed shape
-Pod shape
-Pod color
-Height |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Generation differ on one trait |
|
|
Term
| Important ideas in simple inheritance (1/3) |
|
Definition
| Dominant and Recessive traits |
|
|
Term
| Important ideas in simple inheritance (2/3) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Important ideas in simple inheritance (3/3) |
|
Definition
Segregation of Alleles
-Approx 3:1 ratio |
|
|
Term
| Mendel's Law of segregation |
|
Definition
| 2 copies of a gene segregate from each other during transmission from parent to offspring |
|
|
Term
| Law of independent assortment |
|
Definition
| Alleles of different genes assort independently of each other during gamete formation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Genetic composition of individual |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Characteristics that are a result of gene expression |
|
|
Term
| Two-factor cross possible patterns (2) |
|
Definition
-2 genes linked so that variants found together in parents are always inherited as a unit.
-2 genes and independent and randomly distributed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Offspring are hybrids with respect to both traits |
|
|
Term
| Chromosome Theory of inheritance (1/5) |
|
Definition
| Chromosomes contain DNA, which is the genetic material. Genes are found in chromosomes. |
|
|
Term
| Chromosome Theory of inheritance (2/5) |
|
Definition
| Chromosomes are replicated and passed from parent to offspring. They are also passed from cell to cell during the development of a multicellular organism. |
|
|
Term
| Chromosome Theory of inheritance (3/5) |
|
Definition
| the nucleus of a diploid contains two sets of chromosomes, which are found in homologous pairs. The maternal and paternal sets of homologous chromosomes are functionally equivalent; each set carries a full complement of genes. |
|
|
Term
| Chromosome Theory of inheritance (4/5) |
|
Definition
| At meiosis, one member of each chromosomes pair segregates into each daughter nucleus. |
|
|
Term
| Chromosome Theory of inheritance (5/5) |
|
Definition
| Gametes are haploid cells that combine to form a diploid cell. Each gamete contains one set of chromosomes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The physical location of a gene on a chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Inherited trait in analyzed over the course of a few generation in one family. |
|
|
Term
| Pedigree analysis - Cystic Fibrosis |
|
Definition
-3% of American of European descent carry recessive allele.
-Homozygous individuals exhibit symptoms:
-Abnormal transport of chloride and sodium ions across membranes
-Viscous secretions in lungs, pancreas |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
X-Y system, XX=male, XY=female
X-O system, X or XO=male, XX=female
Z-W system, ZZ=male, ZW=female |
|
|
Term
| Some species such as ____ and ____ have sex controlled my environmental conditions. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Hemophilia A (sex-linked) |
|
Definition
-Caused by recessive X-linked gene
-"Royal Disease"
-Endcodes defective clotting protein |
|
|
Term
| Morgan's experiments showed a correlation between a genetic trait and the inheritance of a sex chromosome in Drosophila |
|
Definition
-X-linked gene the first to be located on a specific chromosome.
-Found a true-breeding line with white-eyed males rather than red eyes.
-Results suggested a connection between alleles for eye color and sex.
-Lower than expected number of white-eyed flies explained by a decreased survival rate
-1933, Morgan first geneticist to receive Nobel Prize |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Inheritance pattern of genes that segregate and assort independently.
-Simple Mendelian inheritance - one trait is completely dominant over the other.
-X-linked inheritance - pairs of dominant and recessive alleles found on the X chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When one gene influences multiple phenotypic trates |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Heterozygote has intermediate phenotype
-Neither allele is dominant
-Phenylketonuria (PKU) - Heterozygotes appear phenotypically normal but heterozygotes have double the normal phenylalanine levels |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-3 or more variants in a population
-Phenotype depends on which two phenotypes are inherited
-ABO blood types in humans |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Norm or reaction - effects of environmental variation on a phenotype (phenotypic plasticity)
-Genetically identical plant grow different height at different temperatures
People with PKU can develop normally if given a diet free of phenylaline (if not can develop retardation) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Deviation between observed and expected outcome.
-Larger amples have less error.
-Small families can expect deviation from expectant |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Probability that two or more independent events will occur is equal to the product of their individual probabilities. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Probability that one of two or more mutually exclusive outcomes will occur is the sum of the probabilities of the posible outcomes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The type of gene interaction in which the alleles of one gene mask the effects of a dominant allele of another gene. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Phenotypes do not overlap. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Phenotypes overlap. (in humans - height, weight, skin color) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Meaning several traits contribute to the outcome. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Look different than P generation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When two genes are close together on the same chromosome and tend to be transmitted as a unit. (a linkage group) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Variations do not fall into categories directly. (height) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
