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| 2 types of cells in the nervous system |
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| generate and transmit action potentials along an axon to the synapse with another cell |
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| provide support for neurons and maintain extracellular environment |
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| a bundle of axons from different neurons |
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produce myelin and insulate axons in the central nervous system
help protect the signal |
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| produce myelin and insulate axons in the peripheral nervous system |
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| contribute to the blood brain barrier which protects the brain from toxic chemicals in the blood |
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| provides the central nervous system with immune defenses |
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| carry sensory information into the nervous system |
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carry commands to physiological and behavioral effects
-muscles and glands |
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| integrate and store information and communicate between the afferent and efferent neurons |
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| cluster of neurons with similar characteristics or functions |
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| the centralized integrative center of the nervous system |
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| site where many nerve cells are found in vertebrates (along with the brain) |
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| central nervous system (cns) |
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| the brain and spinal cord |
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| peripheral nervous system (pns) |
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| nerve cells that are not in the brain or spinal cord |
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| a specialized type of junction where a neuron meets its target cell and passes information along |
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| neurons generate and transmit signals called |
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difference in charge across the plasma membrane of a cell
maintain by ion pumps
ion channels let ions back into the cell, this alterin membrane potential |
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| the membrane potential of living cell at rest (interior is negative with respect to the exterior) |
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| a change in the resting potential of a cell in which the interior becomes less negative (or even positive) compared to the exterior |
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| a change in the resting potential of a cell in which interior becomes more negative compared to the exterior |
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| there is an all or nothing response to nerve stimuli |
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| local currents flow to adjacent regions of the plasma membrane, bringing those areas to threshold as well |
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gaps called nodes of ranvier that can speed action potentials along an axon
-saltatory conduction |
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| axon releases neurotransmitters directly into the synapse when the action potential reaches it, and the postsynaptic membrane responds |
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| the action potential spreads directly from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic |
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| turning off a neurotransmitter is |
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| just as important as turning it on |
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| convert physical and chemical stimuli into neural signals |
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| some sensory cells give gradually diminishing reponses to repeated stimulation |
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| receptor proteins that bind to various molecules |
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| chemicals signals used to communicate with other individuals |
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| a molecule that activates an olfactory receptor protein (usually very specific) |
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| bulbs formed from clusters of axons rom neurons expressing the same receptor proteins |
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| clusters of chemoreceptors |
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| bumps on the human tongue |
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| humans can perceive five main tastes |
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| bitter-salty-sour-sweet-umami |
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| tasting subtle flavors in foods relies on |
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| combination of olfaction and gustation |
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sensory receptors that respond to mechanical forces
(often involve neurons that are associated with hairs movement of the hair stimulates the neuron |
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| adapt slowly, and provide continuous information about things touching the skin |
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meissner's corpuscles
corpuscles means cells |
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| adapt rapidly, and provide information about changes in things touching the skin |
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| adapt slowly, and provide information about low frequency vibrations |
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pacinian corpuscles
corpuscles means cells |
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| adapt rapidly, and provide information about high frequency vibrations |
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| the outside of the hole in a ear which a finger can fit in |
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| modified muscle cells embedded in connective tissue in muscle and innervated by sensory neurons |
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| found in tendons and ligaments and provides information about the force generated by a contracting muscle |
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| 3 smallest bones in the human body |
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malleus, incus, and stapes
evolved from gill arches |
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| inner ear canal that is responsible for maintaining balance |
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| a tapered and coiled, fluid filled chamber composed of three parallel canals that is responsible for hearing |
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| separates the vestibular canal and middle canal |
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| separates middle canal from the tympanic canal |
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| is positioned on the basilar membrane and contains hair cells with cilia that convert pressures waves into action potentials |
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| caused by the loss of function of the tympanic membrane or ossicles in the middle ear |
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caused by damage to the inner ear or auditory pathways
-often occurs from repeated exposure to loud sounds |
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| hair cells in the inner ear |
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are sensitive to being bent
-bending in one direction causes depolarization
-bending in the other direction causes hyperpolarization
can detect gravity and momentum |
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| light sensory system relies on |
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rhodopsins
light sensory system |
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| pigment molecules that absorb light photons and transduce neural signals |
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rod cells
light sensory system |
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| light sensitive cells in the retina that are responsible for black and white vision |
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cone cells
color
light sensory system |
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| photoreceptor cells in the retina that are responsible for color vision |
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eye cups
light versus dark (light is up dark is down) |
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| concentrated photoreceptor cells |
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| eyes that consist of many optical units called ommatidia |
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| eyes that can form images of the visual world |
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| convergent evolution has occurred with |
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image forming eye evolving separately in vertebrates and mollusks
humans and octopus two different species with evolved eyes |
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| muscle involved in many voluntary and involuntary movements |
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| responsible for contractions of the heart |
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| involuntary muscles responsible for movement of many hollow internal organs |
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| bundles of actin and myosin filaments arranged in an orderly fashion |
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| repeating units of myofibril that have distinct banding patterns |
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| z line-a band-i band-h zone-m band |
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| occurs because atp synthesis ceases after death, and release does not occur |
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| cardiac muscle appears striated (like skeletal muscle) because |
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| of the arrangement of actin and myosin filaments |
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| simultaneous contraction of smooth muscle to force food through the digestive tract |
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| one motor neuron innervates only one or a few muscle fibers |
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| one motor neuron innervates an entire bundle of muscle fibers |
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| continuous activation of the contractile machinery |
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slow twitch fibers
long term aerobic work |
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red muscle
cells contain the protein myoglobin, many mitochondria, and are surrounded by many blood vessels, resulting in high levels of oxygen metabolism |
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fast twitch fibers
fibers fatigue easily |
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white muscle
cells contain few mitochondria, have little myoglobin, and are surrounded by few blood vessels |
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| no overlap between actin nd myosin filaments means no cross bridges form and no force is generated |
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| z lines overlap so no force is generated because the muscle cannot get any shorter |
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| increases muscle strength and endurance |
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| maximum force a muscle exerts strength training |
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work capacity or length of time a given workload can be sustained
aerobic exercise |
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| muscle performance is limited by |
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| uses preformed atp and creatine phosphate |
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| metabolizes carbohydrates to locate and pyruvate |
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| metabolizes carbohydrates or fats all the way to H2O and CO2 |
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| rigid support structure that muscles can contract againsr |
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| volume of fluid enclosed in a body cavity surrounded by muscle |
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| a hardened outer surface to which muscles can attach |
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| an internal skeleton to which muscles can attach and pull against |
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| stiff yet flexible connective tissue |
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| rigid component of vertebrate skeletal systems that contains an extracellular matrix of insoluble calcium phosphate crystals and collagen |
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| forms on a scaffold of connective tissue membrane |
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| forms first as a cartilaginous structure resembling the mature bone, then ossifies to become bone |
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| rigid, but pored give it a spongy appearance |
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| a cell that lays down the protein matrix of bone formation |
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| an osteoblast that has been enclosed in lacunae (cavities) within the bone it has built: metabolism, nutrient/waste exchange |
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| a cell that dissolves bone: reposition and degradation of existing bone |
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| the muscle that bends the joint |
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| muscle that extends the joint |
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| flexible bands of connective tissue that hold bones together at the join |
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| strap of connective tissue that attach muscles to bones |
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| levers that have an effort arm and a load arm working together around a fulcrum |
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the ratio between effort and load arms
a high effort to load arm ratio yields great force
a low effort to load arm ratio results in low force |
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| work together around joints where two (or more) bones come together |
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