Platyhelminthes - Flatworms

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Platyhelminthes - Flatworms

 Acelomate - no body cavity

C → Turbellaria (free living)

G → Dugesia 

ID.: Auricles, Eyespots-Ocellus , Mouth, Pharynx 

Platyhelminthes - Flukes

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Platyhelminthes - Flukes

Acoelomate - no body cavity

C → Trematoda (Parasitic Flukes)

G → Chlonorchis 

Life Cycle: Adult fluke, egg, miracidium, cercaria, metacercaria, immature fluke 

Platyhelminthes - Tapeworms

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Platyhelminthes - Tapeworms 

Acoelomate - no body cavity  

C→ Cestoda (Tapeworms)

G→ Taenia 

ID.: scolex: hooks & suckers; proglottid: ovaries & testes 

Brachipoda - Primitive 

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Brachipoda - Primitive 

True Coelom - fully lined with mesoderm  

C → Inarticulata (Primitive)

G → Lingula 

ID.: setae & pedicle 

Brachipoda - Lamp Shells

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Brachipoda - Lamp Shells

True Coelom - body cavity is fully lined with mesoderm  

C→ Articulata (Lamp Shells)

G→ Terebratella 

ID.: pedicle & lophophore 

Mollusca - Chitons

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Mollusca - Chitons 

True Coelom - body cavity is fully lined with mesoderm  

C→ Polyplacophore (Chitons) 

ID.: dorsal plates, mouth, mantle, foot (ventral surface)

Mollusca - Slugs & Snails

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Mollusca - Slugs & Snails

True Coelom - body cavity is fully lined with mesoderm  

C→Gastropoda (Stomach on Feet) 

ID.: Radulla, *Coil & Torsion 

Mollusca - Clams, Scallops, Oysters, Mussels

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Mollusca - Clams, Scallops, Oysters, Mussels

 True Coelom - body cavity is fully lined with mesoderm  

 C→Bivalvia (Two valves, Hinge)

ID.: Clam Anatomy (foot, gills, mantle, anus,etc.) 

Mollusca - Chambered Nautilus, Squid, & Octupuses 

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Mollusca - Chambered Nautilus, Squid, & Octupuses 

True Coelom - body cavity is fully lined with mesoderm  

C→Cephalopoda (head-foot)

Characteristics: closed circulatory system, jet propulsion, mantle cavity  

Annelida - Bristle Worms

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Annelida - Bristle Worms 

Segmented Worms 

C→ Polychaeta (Chitinous Setae)

Serve as prey for fish and crustaceans 

Annelida - Leeches

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Annelida - Leeches 

Lack setae (bristles) present in other annelids 

C→Hirudinea (parasitic and predatory leeches)

Annelida - Few Bristles  

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Annelida- Few Bristles 

Earthworm - dorsal blood vesssel above the coelom 

C→Oligochaeta (earthworm with few setae)

ID.: Earthworm Anatomy: clitellum (reproduction), male pore, prostomium, mouth; internal: dorsal blood vessel & coelom 

Neuron Anatomy

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Central Nervous System - Neuron Anatomy 

Brain & Spinal Chord  

Neuron - basic unit of NvS

ID.: cell body, dendrite, nucleus

Neuron Model

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Central Nervous System - Neuron Model 

ID.: cell body, axon, dendrite, nucleus, nuclesu of Schwann cell, myelin sheath, Node of Ranvier, axon terminal 

Brain Anatomy 

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Central Nervous System - Brain Anatomy 

ID.: cerebellum, cerebral hemisphere, corpus callosum, medulla oblongata, spinal cord, pineal gland, corpora quadrigemina, arbor vitae, fourth ventricle, pons, optic chiasma, intermedia mass of thalmus, fornix 

Reflex Arc Model

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CNS - Reflex Arc Model 

1. sensory receptor 2. sensory neuron 3. interneuron 4. motor neuron 5.effector 

Reflex Hammer

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CNS - Reflex Hammer

Myotactic reflex

Synapse & Neurotransmitters

synapse- contains a small gap separating neurons

neurotransmitters- chemicals that cross the synapse (form of communication)

Chemoreceptors - Taste and Smell

purpose of taste is to drive appetite 

taste bud cells - support cells: receptor cells, hair cells

olfactory epithelium cells - support cells, basal cells, olfactory receptor cells 

Mammalian Eye Model 

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Eye Anatomy 

ID.: iris, pupil, lens, retina, optic nerve, optic disk, Vitreous humor 

Mammalian Eye Model - Photoreceptors 

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Eye Anatomy- Photoreceptors

transmit light energy as nerve impulses down the optic nerve to the brain where the signals are processed into the image we "see"

Rods - active in low light situations

Cones - detect color; active in bright light situations 

Eye Charts

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Astigmatism & Snellen Eye Charts 

Eye Pathology

Normal

Myopia - nearsighted, too bulged, imperfect curvature, too long, bi-concave lens

Hyperopia - farsighted, too thin, imperfect curvature, too short, bi-convex lens 

Mechanorecptors - Touch and Pressure

Mechanoreceptors- found in the skin, muscles, tendons, visceral organs, connective tissues, large blood vessels

Proprioreceptors- spatial awareness relies on mechanoreceptors, fund in joints, ligaments, muscles; stimulated by movement & integrate visual signals; used in sobriety tests  

 Ear Anatomy 

Semicircular canals - signal position, balance, and acceleration

Cochlea - looks like a coiled shell

Mammalian Lung Model

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Respiratory System - Gas Exchange 

cellular metabolism requires oxygen and produces carbon dioxide

Advantages & Disadvantages living on land 

Pathway of air: nostril, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lung, bronchioles, alveoli (1-cell thick)

Dry Spirometer

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Respiratory Physiology - Measuring Respiratory Volumes

Dry Spirometer measures Vital Capacity 

Respiratory Physiology 

Lung Capacity 

Tidal Volume - (500 ml) inhale or exhale at resting conditions

Inspiratory Reserve Volume - forcefully inhaled

Expiratory Reserve Volume - forcefully exhaled

Vital Capacity - maximum amount exhaled after maximum inspiration

Comparative Hearts 

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Fish - 2 chambered heart

Amphibians & Vertebrates - 2 atria 

Reptiles - divided ventricles 

Humans, Crocodiles, Birds - 4 chambered hearts

endothermic - warm-blooded

exothermic - cold-blooded

Mammalian Heart Model

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Circulatory System-Mammalian Heart  

 ID.: right cornoary artery, pulmonary artery, right atrium, superior vena cava, pulmonary vein, right ventricle, tricuspid valve, apex, aorta, left atrium, inferior vena cava, left ventricle, biscuspid valve, pulmonary vein, semilunar valve 

Normal Blood Smear

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Normal Blood Smear 

Blood - transport medium needed to carry dissolved gases, nutrients, wastes, metabolic products

Red blood cells - erythrocytes, 4.5-5.5 million/mm², hemoglobin binds & transports oxygen & carbon dioxide, low counts indicate anemia (blood clotting), high counts indicate high blood pressure 

Platelets 

• 150,000-400,000/mm²
• aids in clotting
• low counts - from uncontrolled bleeding
• high counts - cause clots
• involved in atherosclerosis

Leukemia 

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White Blood Cells - Leukocytes 

4,800-10,800/mm², protective, pathogen destroying, transported to all parts of the body, 

high counts indicate leukemia 

Anemia

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Anemia

low counts of erythorocytes 

blood clotting by platelets 

Blood Vessels

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Blood Vessels - Arteries, Capillaries, Veins 

three layers: inner wall, middle layer, connective tissue 

Arteries - thick walled 

Capillaries - thin walled 

Veins - one-way valve

Electrocardiogram

Graphical representation of the electrical activity of the heart 

Sinatorial (SA) node - right atrium; controls rhythm where wave begins
Atrioventricular (AV) node - lower atrial septum
Bundle of His - carries wave to ventricles via Purkinje fibers
Systole - ventricular contraction

Diastole - ventricular relaxation

Electrical Activity 

P wave - indicates depolarization wave over atria 

QRS complex - ventricular depolarization 

T wave - repolarization of ventricles

P-R interval - time between SA and AV nodes

S-T segment - time at which ventricle is depolarized 

Q-T interval - electrical systole of ventricular contraction 

Blood Pressure Cuff

Physiological Activities 

Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - distributes O₂-rich blood through body 

Redirection of blood flow - extreme temperature, heavy meal, pH imbalance, dissolved oxygen imbalance, excess carbon, dioxide, fear

Systole - ventricular contraction

Diastole - ventricular relaxation

Normal BP - 120/80 (Systolic/Diastolic)

Mean Arterial Pressure

 Osmoregulation

the process by which an organism regulates its internal fluid balance and balances the concentration of solutes and ions in its fluids 

 Nitrogenous Waste

Ammonia - highly toxic (requires a lot of water to dilute)

Urea - intermediate toxicity 

Uric acid - nontoxic

 Mammalian Kidney

Functions

Metabolic waste removal

Regulating the fluid balance

Regulating electrolyte balance

Blood pressure regulation

Regulate pH

Mammalian Kidney

Regions

Outer cortex

Middle medulla

Inner renal pelvis 

Mammalian Kidney

Anatomy

Renal cortex

Renal Artery 

Renal Pelvis 

Ureter 

Mammalian Kidney

Urine Pathway

Filtrate enters convoluted tubule

Loop of Henle

Distal convolute tubule

Renal pelvis

Ureter

Bladder

Urethra

Mammalian Kidney

Nephron - functional unit of the kidney

consists of glomerulus surrounded by Bowman's capsule that drains into a long renal tubule

Renal tubule 3 regions: proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule 

Mammalian Kidney 

Renal corpuscles 

Bowman's capsule

Glomerulus

Blood in the Kidney

Blood reaches the kidney via the renal artery which branches into afferent arterioles to supply each glomerulus 

High blood pressure pushes fluid into Bowman's capsule and drains into the proximal convoluted tubule 

Filtered blood leaves the glomerulus through the efferent arterioles that join and form the renal vein 

Cortex

• Proximal convoluted tubules
• Distal convoluted tubules
• Collecting ducts

Urine Formation 

• Glomerular filtration 
• Tubular reabsorption 
• Tubular secretion 

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

• secreted by pituitary gland
• regulates urine concentration 
• high urine concentration = kidney stones

Investigative analysis 

• make observation
• take patient history
• collect data
• diagonse 
• recommend treatment 

Hydrometer 

Interpreting Data

Volume, Color, specific gravity,  

pH: normal 4.8-7.5,

       acidic-indicates diarrhea, dehydration, starvation, or emphysema

       alkaline-indicates renal failure, bacterial infection, vomiting, low carb        

Glucose: positive-diabetes, high carb diet, hyperthyroidism, shock, chronic pain, excitement

Ketones: metabolism 

Proteins: positive-hypertension, congestive heart failure, gout, bacterial endocarditis, fever 

RBCs

WBCs-positive-urinary infection

Bacteria 

Urea levels