Term
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Definition
| free energy of products is less than free energy of reactants; spontaneous |
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Term
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Definition
| initial energy input for reaction to proceed |
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Term
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Definition
biological catalyst; required for must life-sustaining processes
*usually proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| catalyzes the removal of phosphate from molecules within a cell |
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Term
| para-nitrophenyl-phosphate (pNPP) |
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Definition
| synthetic substrate fro alkaline phosphatase |
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Term
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Definition
| product of the hydrolysis of pNPP; yellow substance; absorbs blue light |
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Term
| equation for hydrolysis of pNPP |
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Definition
pNPP-------------------> pNP + PO4
alkaline phosphatase |
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Term
| 6 parts of spectrophometer |
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Definition
| light source, monochromator, test tube, light detector, amplifier, and readout |
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Term
| independent variables of enzyme lab |
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Definition
enzyme concentration, initial substrate concentration, and pH
*change only 1 at a time while holding the other 2 constant |
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Term
| dependent variable of enzyme lab |
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Definition
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Term
| _____variable causes change in _______variable |
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Definition
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Term
| purpose of buffer in enzyme lab |
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Definition
| keep pH of reaction fixed |
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Term
relationship btwn enzyme concentration and initial reaction rate
(in enzyme lab) |
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Definition
| they are directly proportional; as enzyme concentration increases, reaction rate increases |
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Term
relationship btwn initial substrate concentration and initial reaction rate
(in enzyme lab) |
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Definition
| they are directly proportional, but eventually they level off because one substrate can only bind to 2 enzymes, and eventually all of the substrates are in use, with extra enzyme left |
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Term
relationship btwn pH and initial reaction rate
(in enzyme lab) |
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Definition
| there is an optimal pH for the enzyme, and once it becomes too acidic, the enzyme won't work |
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Term
fertilization accomplishes:
(2 things) |
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Definition
a) activates oocyte (egg) so that it goes on to complete development
b) provides the means by which the haploid set of chromosomes of the sperm joins the haploid set of chromosomes of the egg |
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Term
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Definition
| long-term mechanical barrier taht helps to ensure that the zygote will be diploid; prevents polyspermy; lifts off the surface of the egg soon after first sperm makes contact |
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Term
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Definition
| entrance of more than one sperm into the egg |
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Term
| 3 prevention methods to polyspermy |
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Definition
a) long-term fertilization membrane
b) short-term and rapid electrical block
c) gametes are released into water which dilutes the egg and sperm |
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Term
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Definition
| describes cleavage in sea urchin; cleavage furrow cuts completely and quickly through the embryo |
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Term
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Definition
| nucleus is offset towards the animal pole, away from vegetal pole |
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Term
| directionality of 1st cleavage in sea urchin |
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Definition
| vertical; begins at animal pole and progresses to vegetal pole; creates 2 side-by-side blastomeres |
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Term
| directionality of 2nd cleavage in sea urchin |
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Definition
| vertical; at a right angle to first cleavage |
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Term
| directionality of 3rd cleavage in sea urchin |
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Definition
| horizontal; cuts 4 existing blastomeres into 8 |
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Term
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Definition
| when embryo is divided into 16 blastomeres |
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Term
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Definition
| cavity formed by ball of cells; signifies cell becoming a blastula |
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Term
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Definition
a) few cells of vegetal pole detach and migrate into interior of embryo (primary mesenchyme cells or mesoderm)
b) vegetal pole buckles inward and extends from interior of embryo forming endoderm
*classic pushing in the leaky tennis ball: an invagination from the vegetal pole into the blastocoel |
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Term
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Definition
| cells that will form the skeleton of the larva |
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Term
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Definition
| becomes primitive gut (aka archenteron) |
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Term
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Definition
| outside of cell; develops into the outer regions of larva |
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Term
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Definition
| original opening of gastrula; becomes anus of larva |
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Term
| difference btwn oocyte, egg, and zygote |
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Definition
oocyte is what is being fertilized
egg is before fertilization
zygots is after sperm and egg combine (diploid) |
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Term
| biochemical consequences of egg activation |
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Definition
Increase in DNA synthesis.
Increase in RNA synthesis
Increase in protein synthesis. |
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Term
| restoration of diploid condition during fertilization: |
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Definition
| chromosomes of egg must join chromosomes of sperm |
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Term
| where is yolk concentrated in amphibian egg? |
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Definition
| yolk is more dense and conventrated in the vegetal hemisphere that in the animal hemisphere |
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Term
determination of polarity
(amphibian egg) |
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Definition
offset of nucleus toward animal pole and animal-vegetal polarization of yolk
*external pigment fo egg on animal half and non-pigmented on vegetal half |
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Term
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Definition
| shift of pigment so that a crescent of grayish hue is formed at what will ultimately be the dorsal region of the embryo |
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Term
| effects of yolk on development: |
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Definition
| effects progress of cleavage, morphology of the blastula, and the way that gastrulation occurs |
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Term
directionality of cleavage
(amphibians) |
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Definition
starts at the animal pole and proceeds to vegetal pole
*cleavage furrow slows as it plows through cytoplasm of vegetal side because of high concentration of yolk
*common for second cleavage to begin before first cleavage has ended |
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Term
2nd and 3rd cleavage directionality
(amphibians) |
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Definition
-second is vertical from animal pole and perpendicular to first cleavage
-3rd is horizontal and is offset toward animal pole so upper tier of blastomeres is smaller than the lower one
**more rapid in animal hemisphere so animal hemisphere blastomeres continues to be smaller |
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Term
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Definition
| restricted to animal hemisphere because the vegetal hemisphere is solid with large, yolk-packed cells |
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Term
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Definition
begins at ventral margin where gray crescent has been, rather than vegetal pole; cells from ventral margin begin to migrate into the interior of the embryo, producing a blastopore and archenteron
*an involution of cells just ventral to where the gray crescent was located in the zygote; this inward movement continues as cells of the animal hemisphere migrate down over the larger yolky cells of the vegetal hemisphere |
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Term
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Definition
| located within; gives rise to the gut, digestive organs such as the pancreas and liver, and lungs |
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Term
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Definition
| outside; develops into the outer layer of the skin and the nervous system |
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Term
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Definition
| in between; forms many structures including muscle, bone, blood, kidneys, and gonads |
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Term
central nervous system
CNS |
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Definition
| begins as a thickening of the layer of cells that overlies the upper cells of archenteron--archenteron roof--neural plate folds into neural tube that becomes brain and spinal cord |
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Term
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Definition
| very small portion of cell at animal pole that is free enough from yolk to have any cleavage occur at all |
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Term
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Definition
| first several cleavages are vertical and extend only a short distance downward; horizontal cleavages eventually occur, giving rise to several layers of blastomeres tha tmake up a disc of cells situated on top of the mass of yolk below |
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Term
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Definition
initiated by separation of cells from lower surface of blastoderm, forming a flimsy layer of endoderm--hypoblast--below epiblast
*two steps: a lower layer of blastodisc cells migrates away, forming a layer of hypoblast cells below the epiblast (which the remaining cells of the blastodisc are now known as). Then, as the hypoblast expands, the epiblast cells migrate rearwards and medially to form the primitive streak, through which streak cells migrate to form the mesoblast, a layer of cell between the epiblast and the hypoblast |
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Term
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Definition
| space btwn hypoblast and epiblast |
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Term
primitive streak
(chicken) |
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Definition
| thickened region of epiblast from hypoblast expansion and migration of cells from epiblast toward posterior and central region |
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Term
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Definition
| formed from cells of primitive streak migrating to blastocoel, forming a middle layer of cells |
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Term
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Definition
| formed from folding of neural plate; forms the brain at its broad antierior end and the spinal cord at its narrower posterior end |
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Term
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Definition
| formed from anterio-lateral region of brain; will become the eyes |
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Term
cerebral vesicles
(chicken) |
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Definition
| formed from anterior region of brain; will later develop into the cerebral hemispheres of the brain--most prominant feature of brain |
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Term
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Definition
| blocks of mesoderm; develop from many structures life vertebrade and protect the spinal cord, dermis of skin, and muscles |
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Term
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Definition
| blastodisc is free from yolk, preventing cleavage |
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Term
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Definition
echinoderm: circular
amphibian: oval
chicken: like an eye |
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Term
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Definition
| in addition to the nucleus being offset toward the animal pole, there is more dense yolk in the vegetal hemisphere than in the animal hemisphere, and there is pigment on the surface of the animal hemisphere |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| holoblastic but slow at vegetal pole |
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Term
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Definition
restricted to the animal pole
The first several cleavages are vertical, and extend only a very short distance downward; horizontal cleavages eventually occur, which give rise to several layers of blastomeres that make up a disc of cells situated on top of the mass of yolk below |
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Term
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Definition
| the wall of the blastula is one-cell thick all around; the blastocoel forms so that it occupies the animal and vegetal hemispheres essentially equally |
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Term
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Definition
| , the floor of the blastocoel is considerably thicker than the roof of the blastocoel. The blastocoel forms essentially exclusively in the animal hemisphere of the blastula |
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Term
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Definition
| , the blastocoel is a very narrow space underlying the blastodisc, sitting on an enormous amount of yolk |
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Term
| derivatives of ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm |
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Definition
Ectoderm: epidermis of the skin, hair, nails, lens, cornea, entire nervous system; lining of the nose and mouth.
Mesoderm: muscle, bone, cartilage, notochord, blood, kidneys, gonads.
Endoderm: Lining of esophagus, stomach, intestine; lungs, liver, pancreas, thyroid, parathyroids, bladder lining. |
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