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Biology 101
Review for Final Exam
113
Biology
Undergraduate 1
12/13/2008

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Term
adaptation
Definition
an evolutionary modification in the structure or behavior of organisms over generations that makes them better suited for their environment
Term
allele
Definition
one of the alternative forms of a single gene. in pea plants, a single gene codes for seed color, and it comes in two allels-one codes for yellow seeds, the other for green seeds
Term
bottleneck effect
Definition
a change in allele frequencies in a populuation DUE TO CHANCE, following a sharp reduction in the population's size. this is one of the factors that POTENTIATES GENETIC DRIFT.
Term
genetic drift
Definition
the chance alteration of allele frequencies in a population, with such alterations having greatest impact on small populations
Term
founder effect
Definition
the phenomenon by which an initial gene pool for a population is established by means of that population migrating to a new and isolated area. one condition that potentiates genetic drift.
Term
macroevolution
Definition
evolution that results in the formation of new species or other groupings of living things
Term
microevolution
Definition
a change of allele frequencies in a population of a short period of time. the basis for all large-scale or macroevolution
Term
genetic drift
Definition
the chance alteration of allele frequencies in a population, with such alterations having greatest impact on smaller populations
Term
stabilizing selecter
Definition
in evolution, the type of natural selection in which intermediate forms of a given character are favored over either extreme. this process tends to maintain the average for the character. AVERAGE SURVIVES.
Term
directional selection
Definition
the type of natural selection that moves a character toward one of its extremes
Term
disputive selection
Definition
the type of natural selection that moves a character toward both of its extremes, operating against individuals that are average for that character; relatively uncommon
Term
chemical bonding
Definition
general term for a bond created when ELECTRONS OF TWO ATOMS INTERACT AND REARRANGE INTO A NEW FORM THAT ALLOWS THE ATOMS TO BECOME ATTACHED TO EACH OTHER; ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds are all chemical bonds
Term
covalent bond
Definition
a type of chemical bond in which TWO ATOMS ARE LINKED THRU SHARING OF ELECTIONS
Term
electron
Definition
basic constituent of an atom that has negative electrical charge; electrons are distributed in an atom at a distance from the nucleus; electrons interact to form chemical bonds between atoms
Term
electronegativity
Definition
the measure of the strength of attraction an atom has for electrons; an atom with higher electronegativity will tend to pull electrons away from atoms with lower electronegativity
Term
element
Definition
a substance that cannot be reduced toa ny simpler set of components through chemical processes; an element is defined by the number of protons in its nucleus
Term
hydrogen bond
Definition
a chemical bond that links an already covalently bonded hydrogen atom with a second, relatively electronegative atom
Term
ion
Definition
an atom that has positive or negative charage because it has fewer or more electrons than protons; ions will be attracted to other ions with the opposite charge, thus forming ionic compounds
Term
ionic bonding
Definition
linkage in which two or more ions are bonded to each other by virtue of their opposite charge
Term
isotope
Definition
a form of an element as defined by the number of neutrons contained in its nucleus; different isotopes of an element have varying numbers of neutrons but the same number of protons
Term
molecule
Definition
a structure with a defined number of atoms in a particular spatial arrangement; the atoms and their arrangement determine how the molecule interacts with other molecules
Term
neutron
Definition
a basic constituent of an atom, possessing no electrical charge and found in the atom's nucleus; isotopes are defined by the number of neutrons in an atom
Term
polar covalent bonds
Definition
a type of covalent bond in which electrons are shared unequally between atoms, so that one end of the molecule has a slight negative charge and the other end a slight positive charge
Term
proton
Definition
a basic constituent of an atom, found in the nucleus of the atom and having positive electrical charge; elements are defined by the number of protons in their nucleus
Term
acid
Definition
any substance that yeilds hydrogen ions when in solution; an acid has a number lower than 7 on the pH scale
Term
alkaline
Definition
basic, as in solutions; alkaline (basic) solutions have numbers above 7 on the pH scale
Term
carbohydrate
Definition
an organic molecule that always contains CARBON, OXYGEN, AND HYDROGEN and that, in many instances, contains nothing else; usually have 2x as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms; the building blocks or MONOMERS of carbs are MONOSACCHARIDES, such as glucose, which combine to create the polymers of carbohydrates, the polysaccharides, such as starch and cellulose
Term
cellulose
Definition
a complex carb that is the largest single component of plant-cell walls
Term
cholesterol
Definition
a steroid molecule that forms part of the outer membrane of all animals cells, and that acts as a precursor for many other steroids
Term
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Definition
the primary information-bearing molecule of life, composed of TWO CHAINS OF NUCLEOTIDES, linked together to form a double helix; proteins are put together in accordance with the information encoded in DNA
Term
hydrophilic
Definition
a property of a compound indicating that it WILL interact with water
Term
hydrophobic
Definition
a property of a compound indicating that it WILL NOT interact with water
Term
nucleotide
Definition
the building block of nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA; consist of A PHOSPHATE GROUP, A SUGAR, AND A NITROGEN-CONTAINING BASE
Term
phosphate group
Definition
a phosphorus atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms
Term
polysaccharide
Definition
the polymers of carbohydrates, composed of many monosaccharides (examples: starch and cellulose)
Term
lipid
Definition
a type of biological molecule whose defining characteristic is its relative insolubility in water; examples include cholesterol, steroids, and phospholipids
Term
solute
Definition
the substance BEING DISSOLVED in a solvent to form a solution
Term
solvent
Definition
the substance IN WHICH the solute is dissolved to form a solution
Term
starch
Definition
a complex carb that serves as the major form of carb storage in plants
Term
chloroplast
Definition
the organelle within plant and algae cells that is the site of photosynthesis
Term
cytoskeleton
Definition
a network of protein filaments that functions in cell structure, cell movement, and the transport of materials within the cells; (components of cytoskeleton include: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules)
Term
eukaryotic cell
Definition
a cell whose primary complement of DNA is contained within the membrane-lined nucleus; eukaryotic cells have several other organelles in addition to the nucleus; all organisms are or are made up of eukaryotic cells, except for bacteria and archaea
Term
lysosome
Definition
an organelle found in animals cells that digests worn-out cellular materials and foreign materials that enter the cell
Term
mitochondria
Definition
organelles that are the primary sites of energy conversion within eukaryotic cells
Term
prokaryotic cell
Definition
a cell whose DNA is not located in the nucleus; microscopic, either bacteria or archaea
Term
ribosome
Definition
an organelle, locatedin the cell's cytoplasm, that is the site of protein synthesis; the translation phase of protein synthesis takes place within ribosomes
Term
rough ER
Definition
a network of membranes, found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, that aids in the processing of proteins
Term
smooth ER
Definition
a network of membranes within the cell that is the site of synthesis of various lipids, and the site at which potentially harmful substances are detoxified
Term
transport vesicle
Definition
a membrane-lined sphere that moves within the cell's endomembrane system, carrying within it proteins and other molecules
Term
active transport
Definition
transport of materials ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE WHICH REQUIRES ENERGY; solutes moved against their concentration gradient
Term
endocytosis
Definition
the process by which the plasma membrane folds inward and pinches off, bringing relatively large materials into the cell enclosed inside a vesicle
Term
exocytosis
Definition
the process in which a transport vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane of a cell and the content of the vesicle are ejected outside the cell; it can be used to expel waste products or to export protein products in multicelled organisms
Term
facilitated diffusion
Definition
the passagfe of materials through the cell's plasma membrane, aided by a concentration gradient and a transport protein; (remember, this is PASSIVE transport)
Term
isotonic solution
Definition
a solution that has the same concentration of solutes as another
Term
osmosis
Definition
the net movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration
Term
passive transport
Definition
transport of materials across the cell's plasma membrane that involves no expediture of energy; examples include simple and facilitated diffusion
Term
plasma membrane
Definition
a membrane forming the outer boundary of many cells, composed of a phospholibid bilayer interspersed with proteins and cholesterol molecules and coated, on its exterior face, with short carb chains associated with proteins and lipids
Term
glycocalyx
Definition
an outer layer of the plasma membrane, composed of short carb chains that attach to membrane proteins and phospholipid molecules
Term
phagocytosis
Definition
a process of bringing relatively large materials into a cell by means of wrapping extentions of plasma membrane around the materials to be brought in and fusing the extensions together
Term
phospholipid bilayer
Definition
a chief component of the plasma membrane, composed of two layers of phospholipids, arranged with their fatty-acid chains pointing toward each other
Term
pinocytosis
Definition
a form of endocytosis that brings into the cell a small volume of extracellular fluid and the solutes suspended in it
Term
receptor protein
Definition
a plasma membrane protein that binds with a specific signaling molecule
Term
transport protein
Definition
proteins that form hydrophilic channels through the hydrophobic interior of the cell's plasma membrane, allowing hydrophilic materials to pass through the membrane
Term
first law of thermodynamics
Definition
energy cannot be created or destroyed, but only transformed from one form to another
Term
active site
Definition
the area of an enzyme that binds the substrate and changes its shape to affect its reactivity
Term
enzyme
Definition
a chemically active type of protein that speeds up, or in practical terms enables, chemical reactions in living things
Term
substrate
Definition
the substance that is worked on by an enzyme
Term
catalyst
Definition
a substance that retains its original chemical composition while bringing about a change in a substate; enzymes are catalysts in chemical reactions
Term
second law of thermodynamics
Definition
energy transfer always results in a greater amount of disorder (ENTROPY) in the universe
Term
substrate
Definition
the substance that is worked on by an enzyme
Term
Krebs cycle
Definition
the second stage of cellular respiration, occuring in the inner compartment of mitochondria; major source of electrons for the third stage of respiration, the electron transport chain; also called the citric acid cycle, because this is the first product of the cycle
Term
redox reaction
Definition
a combination of a reduction and an oxidation reaction in which the electrons lost from one substance in oxidation are gained by another in reduction
Term
NAD
Definition
the most important intermediate electron carrier in cellular respiration
Term
cellular respiration
Definition
the three-stage, oxygen-dependent harvesting of energy that goes on in most cells; the three stages are glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain
Term
electron transport chain
Definition
the third stage of cellular respiration, occuring within the inner membrane of the mitochondria, in which most of the ATP are formed
Term
glycolysis
Definition
the first stage of cellular respiration, occuring in the cytosol
Term
oxidation
Definition
loss of one or more electrons by an atom or a molecule
Term
chloroplast
Definition
the organelle within plant and algae cells that is the site of photosynthesis
Term
light reactions
Definition
the first set of chemical reactions in photosynthesis, in which solar energy strips water of electrons and powers the process by which those electrons are transferred to the primary electron acceptors of photosystems II and I
Term
photosystem
Definition
an organized complex of molecules within the THYLAKOID MEMBRANE that collects solar energy and transforms it into chemical energy
Term
reaction center
Definition
in the chloroplast; transforms solar energy into chemical energy during photosynthesis
Term
stroma
Definition
liquid material of chloroplasts
Term
stomata
Definition
microscopic pores in the epidermal cells of plants, found mostly on the underside of leaves; WHERE CARBON DIOXIDE ENTERS AND WATER VAPOR LEAVES
Term
photosynthesis
Definition
process thru which organismms capture energy from the sun (solar energy) and convert it into chemical energy (which is initially stored in a carb)
Term
photosynthesis
Definition
process thru which organismms capture energy from the sun (solar energy) and convert it into chemical energy (which is initially stored in a carb)
Term
Calvin Cycle
Definition
second set of chemical reactions in photosynthesis; energy-rich sugar is produced first by turning carbon dioxide into sugar and then energizing that sugar
Term
chromatin
Definition
a molecular complex of DA and its associated proteins that makes up CHROMOSOMES
Term
cytokinesis
Definition
the physical separation of one cell into two daughter cells
Term
Batesian mimicry
Definition
the type of mimicry in which one species evolves to resemble a species that has superior protection against predators
Term
Mullerian mimicry
Definition
a type of mimicry in which several species that have protection against predators evolve to look alike; they already have protection, their appearance is just reinforcing it
Term
parasitism
Definition
a type of predation in which te predator gets nutrients from the prey, but does not kill the prey immediately and may not ever; negatively affecting one, positively affecting one
Term
mutualism
Definition
both organisms benefit
Term
commensalism
Definition
one benefits, the other isn't harmed or helped
Term
coevolution
Definition
interdependent evolution of two or more species; can be predator&prey or mutually beneficial
Term
r-selected spcies
Definition
a species that tends to be relatively short lived, that tends to produce a lot of offspring which is provides little or no care for, population size will fluctuate in reaction to environment; OPPORTUNIST SPECIES
Term
K-selected species
Definition
a species that tends to be relatively long lived, few ofspring, good deal of upbringing, population remains stable, near carrying capacity; EQUILIBIUM SPECIES
Term
coexistence
Definition
condition in which two species can live in the same habitat, dividing up resources in a way that allows both to survive
Term
1n
Definition
haploid; having one chromosome of each type per cell instead of a pair of chromosomes of each type
Term
2n
Definition
diploid; having two chromosomes of each type per cell
Term
crossing over (genetic recombination)
Definition
a process, occuing during meiosis, in which two homologous chromosomes exchange reciprocal portions of themselves
Term
diploid
Definition
possessing two sets of chromosomes; all human cells are diploid with the exception of human gametes which are haploid
Term
gamete
Definition
a haploid reproductive cell, either egg or sperm
Term
haploid
Definition
possessing a single set of chromosomes; human gamates are haploid cells, because they only have a single set or chroms
Term
independent assortment
Definition
the random distribution of homologous chromosome pairs during meiosis
Term
meiosis
Definition
a process in which a single diploid cell divides to produce four haploid reproductive cells; meiosis produces the gametes for sexual reproduction
Term
sex chromosome
Definition
chromosomes that determine male or female; X or Y
Term
allele
Definition
one of the alternative forms of a single gene
Term
Law of Independent Assortment
Definition
during gamete formation, gene pairs assort independently of one another
Term
polygenic inheritance
Definition
inheritance of a genetic character that is determined by the interaction of multiple genes, with each gene having a small additive effect on the characteristic
Term
germ-line cell
Definition
a cell that becomes an egg or a sperm cell
Term
DNA polymerase
Definition
an enzyme that is active in DNA replication, separating strands of DNA, bringing bases to the parental strands, and correcting errors by remving and replacing incorrect base pairs
Term
nucleotide
Definition
the building block of nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, consisting of a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base
Term
somatic cell
Definition
any cell that is not and will not become an eff or sperm cell
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