Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
Defies a simple definition.
We recognize life by what living things do. |
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Term
| Some Properties of Life (7) |
|
Definition
Evolutionary Adaptation
Responses to the Environment: interaction
Reproduction
Growth and Development
Energy Processing:obtaining lost energy
Regulation: homeostasis..maintenance
Order: not random, everything has a reason |
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Term
Emergent Properties
How different parts are arranged & interact.
Levels of Organization (10) |
|
Definition
1. Biosphere
2. Ecosystems
3. Communities
4. Populations
5. Organisms
6. Organs and organ systems
7. Tissues
8. Cells
9. Organelles
10. Molecules |
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Term
| Life Requires Energy: Organisms & Energy Transformation |
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Definition
-Organisms need energy to carry out activities.
-Energy is transformed from one form to another. |
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Term
| Structure & Function are Correlated |
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Definition
Work together
ex) birds wings structure allows them to be able to fly |
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Term
| CELLS are the basic structure |
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Definition
| lowest level of organization that can carry out activities required for life. |
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Term
| DNA is the unit of biological inheritance |
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Definition
| carries all the genetic information |
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Term
| Feedback mechanisms regulate systems |
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Definition
| processes are regulated through positive and negative feedback |
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Term
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Definition
| accumulation of an end product, slows the process. or completely stops it. |
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Term
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Definition
| Accumulation of an end product speeds/increases the process. |
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Term
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Definition
| Descent with modificataion |
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Term
| How many different species are there? |
|
Definition
1.8 million named
Est. total 10-100 million |
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Term
|
Definition
1. Bacteria
2. Archaea
3. Eukarya |
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Term
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Definition
| Making generalizations based on repeated observations |
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Term
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Definition
A chain of events to determine something.
Asking questions, develop a hypothesis, predictions and experiments. General to specific. |
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Term
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Definition
| tentative answer to a well-framed question. |
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Term
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Definition
| substances that cannot be broken down into other substances.20%-25% essential for life. |
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Term
|
Definition
| contain 2 or more different elements |
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Term
| 4 Elements that make up 96% of living matter |
|
Definition
Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen and Nitrogen.
Remaining 4% is trace elements. |
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Term
|
Definition
smallest unit of matter that still remains the properties of an element.
Behavior depends on arrangements of electrons. |
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Term
|
Definition
| presence of unpaired electrons |
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Term
|
Definition
| Atoms with incomplete valence shells interact with other atoms to complete their valence shells. |
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Term
|
Definition
| the attraction of a particular atom for electrons |
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Term
|
Definition
| sharing a pair of valence electrons by 2 atoms. |
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Term
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Definition
| two or more covalenty bonded atoms |
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Term
|
Definition
| when electrons are shared equally between two atoms |
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Term
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Definition
| electrons are not shared equally, resulting in polarity |
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Term
|
Definition
| electrons are transferred from one atom to another |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| Has partial positive charge in colvalent bonds. Weak bond. |
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Term
| Van der Waals Interactions |
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Definition
| Electrons are not always symmetrically distributed, resulting in regions of positive or negative charges. Enables molecules & atoms to stick together |
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Term
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Definition
| Making & Breaking of chemical bonds |
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Term
| Emergent Properties of Water (4) |
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Definition
1. Cohesion of water molecule
2. Moderation of temperature (because of its high specific heat)
3. Ice floats on liquid water
4. Water is a versatile solvet |
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Term
|
Definition
Hydrogen bonds that hold water together.
Allow trees to pull water up. |
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Term
| Moderation of Temperature: Of water |
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Definition
Due to high specific heat.
Stabilizes temp. and moderates climate |
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Term
| Ice floats on liquid water |
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Definition
| Life carries on under the ice. Ice creates layer of insulation. Liquid water throughout the year. |
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Term
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Definition
Substances that can dissolve other substances, resulting in a solution.
Water attracts both positive and negative ions. |
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Term
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Definition
| Rare & Reversible. H+ and OH- are very reactive. |
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Term
|
Definition
| increase H+ in a solution. |
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Term
|
Definition
| increase the amount of OH- in a solution |
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Term
|
Definition
| measure the amount of H+ in a solution |
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Term
|
Definition
| minimize change in concentration of H+ and OH- |
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Term
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Definition
Organic. Essential in DNA, proteins, carbohydrates, etc.
4 valence electrons |
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Term
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Definition
| chemical groups with certain properties |
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Term
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Definition
| Large molecules made up of thousands of covalently bonded atoms. (Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids) |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| long molecules made up of monomers |
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Term
|
Definition
| A covalent bond joins two monomers and a water molecule is lost. Monomers join through this to make polymers. |
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Term
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Definition
| Bond between two monomers is broken by addition of a water molecule. Break polymer, monomers disassembled. |
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Term
|
Definition
| sugars and polymers of sugars (Glucose monomers) |
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Term
| Three Carbohydrate Groups: |
|
Definition
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
polysaccharides |
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Term
|
Definition
| Formulas with multiples of the unit (CH2O). Provide fuel for cellular work (cellular respiration). Carbon Skeletons used in synthesis of other small organic molecules. Monomers incorporated in disaccharides and polysaccharides. Rings. |
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Term
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Definition
| 2 monosaccharides. Covalent bond (via dehydration reaction). |
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Term
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Definition
| few hundred-few thousand monosaccharides joined together. Act as storage/ building material. |
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Term
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Definition
| A storage polysaccharide of plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers. Plants store starch in chloroplasts. |
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Term
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Definition
| Storage polysaccharide in animals. Store in liver and muscle cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| Major component of walls of plant cells. Polysaccharide. |
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Term
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Definition
| Structural polysaccharide found in arthropod exoskeletons. Provides structural support for fungal cell walls. |
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Term
|
Definition
Do not form polymers. Little to no affinity for water (hydrophobic), non polar hydrocarbons.
Fats, phospholipids, steroids |
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Term
|
Definition
| Store energy. More complex fuel source than starch. Provides cushion & insulation for animals. |
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Term
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Definition
| 3 carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl attached to each carbon. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| 3 Fatty acid molecules each joined to glycerol via dehydration reactions. (This means 3 dehydration reactions occur). |
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Term
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Definition
| Do not have double bonds (not in hydrocarbon bond). Solid @room temp. May contribute to cardiovascular disease. |
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Term
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Definition
| Have one or more double bonds. Liquid @ room temp. Not as tightly packed as saturated fats (tail is kinked). |
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Term
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Definition
| Process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats. Creates saturated fats with trans double bonds. Where its located and how its arranged make them very bad. |
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Term
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Definition
| may contribute more than saturated fats to cardiovascular disease. |
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Term
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Definition
| made of 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to a glycerol. |
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Term
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Definition
| 2 fatty acid tails. hate water. |
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Term
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Definition
| phosphate head. water loving. |
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Term
|
Definition
| arrangement in cell membranes. Self-assemble when added to water. |
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Term
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Definition
| 4 fused rings in carbon skeleton. lipid. |
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Term
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Definition
| Steroid. Component in animal cell membranes. High levels in blood contribute to cardiovascular disease. |
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Term
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Definition
| Structural support, Storage, Transport, Cellular communications, movement, defense against foreign substances. |
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Term
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Definition
| selective acceleration of chemical reactions. |
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Term
|
Definition
storage of amino acids
ex) casein, oval bumin |
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Term
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Definition
coordination of an organisms activities.
ex) insulin |
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Term
| Contractile & Motor Proteins |
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Definition
Movement.
ex) cilia, flagella |
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Term
|
Definition
Protection against disease.
ex) antibodies |
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Term
|
Definition
Transport of substances.
ex) Hemoglobin |
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Term
|
Definition
Response of cell to chemical stimuli
ex) nervous system |
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Term
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Definition
support.
ex)Keratin, collagen, elastin, etc. |
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Term
|
Definition
| organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups |
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Term
|
Definition
Polymer of amino acids(Amino acids with peptide bonds). Unbranched polymers built from the same set of 20 amino acids.
N terminus has a nitrogen, C terminus has a carboxyl end. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Consist of 1 or more polypeptides. precisely folded/twisted into a unique shape. Structure determines its function. |
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Term
|
Definition
| substance that the enzyme is going to work on |
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Term
|
Definition
| Side chains on amino acids. Determines the identity/function of the amino acid |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What determines a proteins function? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Primary Structure (Proteins) |
|
Definition
| unique sequence of amino acids |
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|
Term
| Secondary Structure (proteins) |
|
Definition
| coils and folds in the polypeptide chain |
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Term
| Tertiary Structure (Proteins) |
|
Definition
| determined by interactions among various side chains (R groups). |
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Term
| Quaternary Structure (Proteins) |
|
Definition
| results when a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Hereditary blood disorder (form of anemia). Mutated form of hemoglobin distorts red blood cells (become sickle-shaped). Causes blockage of vessels. Blood cells no longer transport oxygen effectively or efficiently. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Unit of inheritance, made of DNA. Determines amino acid sequence of a polypeptide. |
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Term
|
Definition
Monomers that make up a nucleic acid.
Consist of a nitrogen base, pentose sugar, and 1 or more phosphate groups. |
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Term
|
Definition
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
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Term
| Where does protein synthesis occur? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| What provides directions for it's own replication? |
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Definition
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Term
| Roles of Nucleic Acids (3&where they take place) |
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Definition
| Synthesis of mRNA (in nucleus). Movement of mRNA into cytoplasm. Synthesis of protein (ribosomes) |
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Term
|
Definition
| Made up of monomers called nucleotides. Polymers called Nucleic acids. |
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Term
| What make up nucleotides? |
|
Definition
A nitrogen base (A, C, T, or G).
pentose sugar.
one or more phosphate groups. |
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Term
|
Definition
| portion of nucleotide without the phosphate group. |
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Term
| What is the sugar in RNA? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| What is the sugar in DNA? |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| cytosine, thymine, and uracil. Single six-membered ring. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Adenine and guanine. Six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring. |
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Term
| What bond joins adjacent nucleotides? |
|
Definition
| Covalent bons that form between OH- group on the 3' carbon of one nucleotide and the phosphate on the 5' carbon on the next. (This is the backbone) |
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Term
|
Definition
| 2 Polynucleotides spiraling around an imaginary axis. 2 backbones run opposite 5'-->3' directions from each other. |
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Term
| What type of bond forms between nitrogen bases? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| Complementary Base Pairing |
|
Definition
A=T
C...G
(...=triple bond) |
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Term
|
Definition
| single polypeptide chains |
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Term
| RNA Complementary Pairing |
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| Comparison of whole genomes of different species. |
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Term
|
Definition
| analysis of large sets of proteins |
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Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
| All cells share the following: |
|
Definition
1.contained withing a plasma membrane
2.contain semi fluid substance called cytosol
3.contain chromosomes (carry genes)
4. contain ribosomes that make proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| semi-fluid substance that is contained within the cytoplasm |
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Term
|
Definition
before nucleus/doesn't have a nucleus or membrane bound organelles. Cytoplasm is bound by the plasma membrane.
Bacteria and Archea. |
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Term
|
Definition
in prokaryotic cells.
unbound region where DNA is located. |
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Term
|
Definition
| DNA in a nucleus, bounded by a membrane. Membrane-bound organelles. Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma membrane and nucleus. Larger than prokaryotic cells. |
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Term
|
Definition
| double-membrane that binds the nucleus in eukaryotic cells. (2 lipid bilayers) |
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Term
| Organelles Particular to Animal Cells |
|
Definition
| Flagellum, centrosome (centrioles) |
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Term
| Organelles particular to plant cells |
|
Definition
| cell wall, chloroplast, plasmodesmata |
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Term
|
Definition
contains DNA.
contains the cell genes. |
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Term
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Definition
| regulate entry and exit of molecules from the nucleus. |
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Term
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Definition
composed of protein.
maintains the shape of the nucleus. |
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Term
|
Definition
| composed of single DNA molecule associated with proteins. |
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Term
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Definition
| DNA and proteins of chromosomes |
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Term
|
Definition
| located within the nucleus. Site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis. |
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Term
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Definition
| particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein. Carry out protein synthesis in the cytosol, outside of ER adn outside of the nuclear envelope. |
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Term
| Components of Endomembrane System (6) |
|
Definition
Nuclear envelope. ER. Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes. Vacuoles. Plasma Membrane.
*Either continuous or connected via transport vesicles. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Continuous with nuclear envelope. Accounts for more than half of total membrane in eukaryotic cells. |
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Term
| Smooth ER (1factor4functions) |
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Definition
| Lacks ribosomes. Synthesizes lipids. Metabolizes carbohydrates. Detoxifies drugs & poisons. stores calcium ions. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Membrane factory for the cell. Studded with Ribosomes (bound). Secrete glycoproteins. Distributes transport vesicles. |
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Term
|
Definition
| proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates. |
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Term
|
Definition
| proteins surrounded by membranes |
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Term
|
Definition
| consists of flattened membranous sacs. (Cisternae) |
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Term
|
Definition
| Flattened membranous sacs that make up the golgi apparatus |
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Term
| Functions of the Golgi Apparatus (3) |
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Definition
| Modifies products of ER. Manufactures certain macromolecules. Sorts &packages materials into transport vesicles. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
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Definition
| membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules. |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| Hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids. Work best in the acid environment inside the lysosome. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Cell engulfs another cell. Forms a food vacuole. Lysosome fuses with food vacuole and digests the molecules. |
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Term
|
Definition
Lysosome uses enzymes to recycle its own organelles and macromolecules.
Vesicle surrounds cell then lysosome fuses & digests. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
pump excess water out of the cell.
Found in many freshwater protists. |
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Term
|
Definition
found in mature plant cells.
hold organic compounds and water. |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which 2 Organelles convert energy to forms that a cell can use? |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| sites of cellular respiration |
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Term
|
Definition
Found in plants and algae.
sites of photosynthesis. |
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Term
|
Definition
| uses oxygen to generate ATP. |
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Term
| Similarities between bacteria and mitochondria and chloroplasts |
|
Definition
Enveloped by double membrane.
Contain free ribosomes & circular DNA molecules.
Grow & reproduce somewhat independently in cells. |
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Term
|
Definition
| where metabolic steps are catalyzed. |
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Term
|
Definition
large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP.
Inner membrane. |
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Term
|
Definition
| green pigments in chloroplasts. |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
internal fluid of chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts are plastids. |
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Term
|
Definition
Specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single membrane.
Produce hydrogen peroxide & convert it to water. |
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Term
|
Definition
| network of fibres extending throughout the cytoplams |
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Term
| 3 Components of the cytoskeleton |
|
Definition
| microtubules, microfilament, intermediate filaments |
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Term
| Cytoskeleton Function (5) |
|
Definition
support the cell & maintain its shape.
interacts with motor proteins to produce motility.
provides "mono rails" for vesicles.
Help regulate biochemical activities.
Organizes cell's structures, activities, and anchors many organelles. |
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Term
|
Definition
Thickest component of the three.
Hollow rods about 25nm in diameter and about 200 nm to 25 microns long |
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Term
| Functions of Microtubules (3) |
|
Definition
Shaping the cell.
Guiding movement of organelles.
Separating chromosomes during cell division. |
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Term
|
Definition
"microtubule - organizing centre"
has a pair of centrioles |
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Term
|
Definition
| 9 triplets of microtubles arranged in a ring. |
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Term
|
Definition
| loco motor appendages of some cells. Beating is controlled by microtubules. |
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Term
| Microfilaments/Actin Filaments |
|
Definition
Thinnest components.
Solid rods about 7nm in diameter, built as twisted double chains of actin subunits (proteins) |
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Term
|
Definition
Bear tension, resist pulling forces within the cell.
Function in cellular motility. |
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Term
|
Definition
| 3D network of microfilaments just inside the plasma membrane. |
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Term
| What makes up the core of micro villi of intestinal cells? |
|
Definition
| Bundles of microfilaments |
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Term
|
Definition
| protein contained in microfilaments that function in cellular motility. |
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|
Term
| Cell Motility (3 examples) |
|
Definition
muscle contractions.
ameoboid contractions.
cytoplasmic streaming. |
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|
Term
| Intermediate Filaments (3 qualities) |
|
Definition
From 8-12 nm in diameter.
More permanent cytoskeleton fixtures.
In between size. |
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|
Term
| Function of Intermediate Filaments |
|
Definition
| support cell shape & fix organelles in place. |
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|
Term
| Extracellular structures (3) |
|
Definition
cell walls of plants.
extracellular matrix of animal cells (ECM).
Inter cellular junctions. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Protects, maintains shape, and prevents excess uptake of water. |
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|
Term
| Extracellular Matrix (ECM) |
|
Definition
Made up of glycoproteins such as collagen, proteoglycans, fibronectin.
Animal Cells.
Bind to receptor proteins in the plasma membrane. |
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Term
|
Definition
| receptor proteins in the plasma membrane. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| facilitate the contact between neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems. Through direct physical contact (Adhere, interact, communicate). |
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|
Term
| Types of intercellular Junctions (4) |
|
Definition
Plasmodesmata.
Tight junctions.
Desmosomes.
Gap junctions. |
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Term
|
Definition
Channels that perforate plant cell walls.
Water, small solutes (and sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell to cell. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid. |
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Term
|
Definition
Anchoring Junctions.
Fasten cells together into strong sheets. |
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Term
|
Definition
Communicating junctions.
Provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells. |
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Term
|
Definition
Both a polar & non-polar molecule.
Hydrophiilic head
hydrophobic tail
most membrane proteins are also |
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Term
|
Definition
Model of membrane.
Mosaic of protein molecules in a phospholipid bilayer. |
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|
Term
| Fluidity of Membranes: Phospholipid movements within the bilayer. |
|
Definition
Lateral- occur frequently
Flip Flop- very rare
Membranes must be fluid to work properly (like salad oil). |
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Term
|
Definition
| loosely bound to the surface of the membrane. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer. |
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Term
|
Definition
Integral proteins that span the entire membrane.
Hydrophobic regions consist of non-polar amino acids.
Hydrophillic regions are exposed. |
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|
Term
| 6 major functions of membrane proteins |
|
Definition
| Transport. Enzymatic activity. Signal transduction. Cell to cell recognition. Intercellular joining. Attached to cytoskeleton & extracellular matrix. |
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|
Term
| How do cells recognize each other? |
|
Definition
| by binding to surface molecules, often containing carbohydrates on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane. |
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Term
|
Definition
| membrane carbohydrates covalently bonded to lipids. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| membrane carbohydrates covalently bonded to proteins. |
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|
Term
| Carbohydrates on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane vary between species, individuals and cells. What is an example? |
|
Definition
4 Human Blood types:
Distinguished by variation in the carbohydrate portion of glycoproteins. |
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|
Term
| Plasma membranes are selectively permeable. Which type of molecules can pass through rapidly? which need assistance? |
|
Definition
- hydrophobic (non-polar) molecules (hydrocarbons, CO2, O2) can pass through rapidly.
-Polar molecules (such as sugars) do not cross the membrane easily. Must use transport proteins. |
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Term
|
Definition
Help polar/hydrophilic substances pass through the lipid bilayer.
Specific for the substance it moves. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Have a hydophilic channel that certain molecules or ions can use as a tunnel. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| facilitate the passage of water |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Transport Protein.
Binds to molecules & change shape to shuttle them across the membrane. |
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Term
|
Definition
| diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| movement of particles spreading out evenly into available space. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| substance dissolved in a solution |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| As many molecules cross the membrane in one direction as in the other. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| absence of other forces, a substance will diffuse from where it is more concentrated to where is is less concentrated. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Water diffuses across a membrane from lower solute concentration to higher solute concentration until the concentration is equal on both sides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
ability of surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or loose water.
Depends on concentrations outside vs. inside the cell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
solute concentration is the same as inside the cell; no net water movement.
animal-normal
plant-flaccid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Solution concentration is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water.
animal- shriveled
plant- plasmolyzed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Solute concentration is less than inside the cell; cell gains water.
animal- lysed
plant- tuguid (normal/plump) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| control of solute concentration & water balance, is a necessary adaptation for life in hyper tonic or hypo tonic environments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transport proteins can help polar molecules diffuse passively over membranes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Channel proteins that transport ions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| open or close in response to stimulus |
|
|
Term
| Solutes are transported from ____ to ____ concentration. |
|
Definition
| From high to low concentration. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Require energy (usually ATP) for transfer of solutes across membranes.
Allows cells to maintain concentration gradient that differ from their surroundings.
Ex) Sodium-potassium pump |
|
|
Term
| Carrier Proteins Role in Active Transport |
|
Definition
| All proteins that move solutes against their concentration gradient |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| voltage difference across a membrane |
|
|
Term
| Cause of voltage difference across a membrane |
|
Definition
| voltage is created by differences in distribution of positive & negative ions across a membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Drive the diffusion of ions across a membrane.
2 combined forces: chemical & electrical |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ions concentration gradient |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Effects of membrane potential on the ions movement |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Major electrogenic pump of animal cells |
|
|
Term
| Why are electrogenic pumps important? |
|
Definition
| Help store energy that can be used for cellular work |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Main electogenic pump of plants, fungi, and bacteria. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| occurs when active transport of a solute indirectly drives transport of other solutes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Use the gradient of hydrogen ions generated by proton pumps to drive active transport of nutrients into the cell. |
|
|
Term
| How do large molecules (polysaccharides & proteins) cross membranes in bulk? |
|
Definition
Via vesicles.
Requires energy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Transport vesicles migrate to the membrane, fuse with it, and release their contents.
Secretory cells use exocytosis to export their products. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
cell takes in macromolecules by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane.
Reverse of exocytosis, involving different protons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Phagocytosis- "cellular eating"
-Pinocytosis- "cellular drinking"
-Receptor-mediated endocytosis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A cell engulfs a particle in a vacuole.
Vacuole fuses with a lysosome to digest the particle. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Molecules are taken up when extracellular fluid is "gulped" into tiny vesicles. |
|
|
Term
| Receptor-mediated Endocytosis |
|
Definition
| binding of ligands to receptors triggers vesicle formation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Totality of an organism's chemical reactions.
Manages the material & energy resources of the cell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Begins with a specific molecule and ends with a product.
Each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Break down complex molecules to simpler compounds and release energy during this process.
ex) cellular respiration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones
ex) synthesis of protein from amino acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Study of how organisms manage their energy resources. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Kinetic
2. Thermal
3. Potential
4. Chemical |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Study of energy transformations |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Energy and matter can be transferred between the organism and its surroundings. |
|
|
Term
| First Law of Thermodynamics |
|
Definition
Energy can be transferred and transformed, but cannot be created or destroyed.
Principle of conservation of energy. |
|
|
Term
| Second Law of Thermodynamics |
|
Definition
| Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens to unusable energy in reactions? |
|
Definition
often lost as heat.
Living cells unavoidably convert organized forms of energy to heat. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Occur without energy inputs; they can happen quickly or slowly. |
|
|
Term
| What must happen for a process to occur without energy input? |
|
Definition
| it must increase the entropy of the universe |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Energy that can do work when temp. and pressure are uniform, as in a living cell.
A measure of systems instability. |
|
|
Term
| What happens during a spontaneous change? |
|
Definition
| Free energy decreases and the stability increases. |
|
|
Term
| More Free Energy (Higher G) |
|
Definition
Less stable.
Greater work capacity. |
|
|
Term
| Less Free Energy (lower G) |
|
Definition
More stable.
less work capacity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A state of maximum stability.
Systems never move away from equilibrium |
|
|
Term
| When can a spontaneous process perform work? |
|
Definition
| when its moving towards equilibrium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| proceeds with a net release of free energy and is spontaneous (no energy required). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Absorbs free energy from its surroundings and is nonspontaneous (requires input of energy to get products). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Reactions eventually reach equilibrium and then do no work |
|
|
Term
| 3 Kinds of Work a Cell Does |
|
Definition
1. Chemical
2. Transport
3. Mechanical
Powered by the hydrolysis of ATP |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one.
mediated by ATP. |
|
|
Term
| ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) Structure |
|
Definition
| Ribose (sugar), adenine (nitrogen base), adn 3 phosphate groups. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Energy is released from ATP when the terminal phosphate bond is broken.
Bonds between phosphate can be broken by hydrolysis.
This release of energy comes from the chemical change to a state of lower free energy. Free energy is released and used. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
ADP- less free energy, more stable.
ATP-more free energy, less stable. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Transferring a phosphate group to some other molecule such as a reactant.
How ATP drives endergonic reactions. |
|
|
Term
| Phosphorylated Intermediate |
|
Definition
| Recipient molecule of phosphorylation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| addition of a phosphate group to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
catalytic protein (biological catalyst).
Enzymes catalyze reactions by lowering the EA barrier. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction. |
|
|
Term
| Chemical Reactions Involve... |
|
Definition
| Bond breaking and bond forming |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
initial energy needed to start a chemical reaction.
AKA Free energy of activation
Often supplied in the form of thermal energy that the reactant molecules absorb from their surrounding. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reactant that an enzyme acts on. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| forms when an enzyme binds to its substrate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the region on the enzyme where the substrate bonds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
When the substrate enters the active site, the enzyme slightly changes shape, making the substrate fit even more tightly in the active site.
This fit enhances the catalytic reaction. |
|
|
Term
| In an enzymatic reaction... |
|
Definition
The substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme.
Creating an enzyme-substrate complex. |
|
|
Term
| An active site can lower an EA barrier by(4) |
|
Definition
-Orientating substrates correctly
-Stressing substrate bonds
-providing a favorable micro-environment
-covalently bonding to other to the substrate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1.Substrate enters active site
2.substrates are held in active site by weak interactions
3.active site can lower Ea &speed up reation
4. Substrates are converted to products
5. Products are released
6.Active site is available for new substrate molecules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
non-protein enzyme helpers.
may be organic or inorganic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Bind to the active site of an enzyme, competing with the substrate |
|
|
Term
| Noncompetitive Inhibitors |
|
Definition
| Bind to another part of an enzyme, cause the enzyme to change shape and making the active site less effective. |
|
|
Term
| Enzyme's activity can be affected by: |
|
Definition
General environmental factors, such as temp. and pH.
Chemicals that specifically influence an enzyme. |
|
|
Term
| Optimal Conditions for Enzyme Activity |
|
Definition
Favor the most active shape for the enzyme molecule.
Best induced fit. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Enzyme that is found in numerous living organisms & catalyzes the decomposition of H2O2 into water & oxygen.
2H2O2-->2H2o+O2 |
|
|
Term
| Catabolic Exergonic Process |
|
Definition
| breakdown of complex organic molecules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| is a set of reactions that breakdown organic molecules and produce energy in the form of ATP |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| consumption of organic molecules and oxygen, yields ATP |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| respiration that does not require oxygen. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants |
|
|
Term
| How does cellular respiration yield energy |
|
Definition
| transfer of electrons during chemical reactions release energy stored in organic molecules, which is ultimately used to synthesize ATP. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a substance loses electrons, or is oxidized |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A substance gains electrons or is reduced |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Redox in Cellular Respiration |
|
Definition
Fuel (ex. glucose) is oxidized.
oxygen released. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Coenzyme.
Electron acceptor.
Functions as an oxidizing agent during cellular respiration. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
NADH.
represents stored energy that is tapped to synthesize ATP.
Passes electrons to an electron transport chain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Passes electrons in a series of steps instead of one explosive reaction |
|
|
Term
| How do electron transport chains work? |
|
Definition
| Electrons are shuttled by NADH to the top of the chain(high energy)and at the bottom of the chain(low energy)those electrons are captured by O2(high electronegativity)along with H+ to form H2O. The energy yielded is used to regenerate ATP. |
|
|
Term
| Harvesting Energy From Glucose... (3) |
|
Definition
1. Glycolysis
2. The citric acid cycle
3. Oxidative phosphorylation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Breaks down glycose into two molecules of pyruvate.
Occurs in cytoplasm & has 2 major phases: energy investment phase & energy payoff phase
Occurs whether or not O2 is present. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
2 ATP used.
Glucose in, 2ADP + 2P out |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
4ATP are made by transferof a phosphate group from an organic substrate to ADP by an enzyme. 2 pyruvate molecules are produced, and used in the next step.
Makes 2 pyruvate + 2water
4ADP+4P in, 4ATP formed.
2NAD-+4e-+4H+in, 2NADH+ 2H+ |
|
|
Term
| Substrate-Level PHosphorylation |
|
Definition
| 4ATP are made by transfer of a phosphate group from an organic substrate to ADP by an enzyme. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In the presence of O2, pyruvate enters the mitochondrion. where the oxidation of glucose is completed |
|
|
Term
| What must happen before the citric acid cycle can begin? (conversion of pyruvate) |
|
Definition
| pyruvate must be converted to acetyl Coenzyme A which links glycolysis to the citric acid cycle. This step is carried out by the multi enzyme complex that catalyses three reactions. |
|
|
Term
| Citric Acid Cycle/Krebs Cycle |
|
Definition
Completes the breakdown of pyruvate to CO2.
Each turn of the cycle oxidizes organic fuel derived from pyruvate, generating 1ATP, 3NADH and 1FADH2 X2 because two molecules of Acetyl CoA. |
|
|
Term
| How many steps are in the Citric Acid Cycle? |
|
Definition
| 8. Each catalyzed by a specific enzyme. |
|
|
Term
| How does Acetyl CoA join the citric acid cycle? (1st step of Citric Acid Cycle) |
|
Definition
| the acetyl group of acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate forming citrate. |
|
|
Term
| What do the next 7 steps include? (CAC) |
|
Definition
| decompose the citrate back to oxaloacetate, making the process a cycle. |
|
|
Term
| What do NADH and FADH2 do in the CAC? |
|
Definition
| Relay electrons to the electron transport chains. |
|
|
Term
| Oxidative Phosphorylation |
|
Definition
Accounts for most of the ATP synthesis.
Last step. |
|
|
Term
| Electron Transport Chain (makeup) |
|
Definition
| inner membrane (cristae) of the mitochondrion. Most of the chain's components are proteins, which exist in multiprotein complexes. |
|
|
Term
| Electron Transport Chain (how it works) |
|
Definition
The carriers alternate reduced and oxidized states as they accept and donate electrons.
Electrons drop in free energy as they down the chain adn are finally passed to oxygen, forming water(spontaneous). passed through a # of proteins. generates no ATP. breaks large free-energy drop from food to O2 into smaller steps that release energy into manageable amounts. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work |
|
|
Term
| Electron transfer in the electron transport chain causes... |
|
Definition
proteins to pump H+ from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space.
H+ then moves back across the membrane passing through the proton ATP synthase. |
|
|
Term
| The exergonic flow of H+ drives... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
H+gradient.
emphasizing its capacity to do work. |
|
|
Term
| How much ATP does cellular respiration make? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why # of ATP is not exactly known |
|
Definition
| 1.phosphorylation&redox reactions aren't directly coupled so ratio of NADH to ATP is not a whole #. 2.depend on shuttle used to transport electrons 3.proton-motive force drives other work as well |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| uses an electron transport chain with a final electron acceptor other than oxygen, for example sulfate. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Uses substrate-level phosphorylation instead of an electron transport chain to generate ATP. Consists of glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate NAD+, which can be reused in glycolysis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps, with the first release in CO2. Make electron acceptors available.2acetaldehyde to 2 ethanol. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Pyruvate is reduced to NADH, forming lactate as an end product, with no release of CO2. Human muscle cells use lactic acid fermentation to generate ATP when O2 is scarce. |
|
|
Term
| Foods produced using lactic acid fermentation |
|
Definition
| yogurt, sauerkraut, sour milk products, belgian beer, etc. Acidic environment prevents growth of harmful bacteria, while good flora continue to grow. Helpful for digestive health. |
|
|
Term
| Which processes use glycolysis? Why? |
|
Definition
| Fermentation, Anaerobic, & Aerobic respiration. To oxidize glucose & harvest chemical energy of food. |
|
|
Term
| Which use NAD+ during glycolysis? For What? |
|
Definition
| Fermentation, Anaerobic, & Aerobic respiration. oxidizing agent that accepts electrons during glycolysis. |
|
|
Term
| Which Final acceptors do they use? |
|
Definition
| Different final electron acceptorts: an organic molecule (such as pyruvate or acetaldehyde) in fermentation and O2 in cellular respiration. |
|
|
Term
| Cellular Respiration vs. Fermentation ATP Production |
|
Definition
| cellular respiration produces 32 ATP per glucose molecule while fermentation produces 2 ATP. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| carry out fermentation or anaerobic respiration and cannot survive in the presence of O2. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Can survive using either fermentation or cellular respiration.
ex) yeast, many bacteria and human muscle cells |
|
|
Term
| Facultative Anaerobe (2 ROUTES) |
|
Definition
NO O2-fermentation. ethanol, lactate, or other products.
O2- aerobic respiration. acetyl CoA, citric acid cycle. |
|
|
Term
| Cellular Respiration Equation |
|
Definition
| C6H12O6+ 6O2-->6CO2 + 6H2O +energy(ATP&heat) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process that converts solar energy into chemical energy. Takes place in the chloroplasts. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
use the energy of sunlight to make organic molecules.
ex)plants, algae, other protists, ,some prokaryotes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bacteria cell overtakes other cell, creates chloroplast. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Green pigment within chloroplasts.
Makes leaves green. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| interior tissue of the leaf; each contains 30-40 chloroplasts. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pores in which CO2 enters and O2 exits a leaf. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Dense interior fluid in chloroplasts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| connected sacs in the chloroplast that contain chlorophyll. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| thylakoids stacked in colomns |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 6CO2 + 12H20+light energy--> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O |
|
|
Term
| Overview of Photosynthesis |
|
Definition
Chloroplasts split H2O into H+ and O2 incorporating the electrons of H+ into sugar molecules and releasing O2 as a by-product.
Consists of the light reactions and Calvin Cycle. |
|
|
Term
| Light Reactions (Where & What) |
|
Definition
where: thylakoids
what: split H2O, release O2, reduce NADP+ to NADPH, phosphorylation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Distance between crests of waves.
Visible light includes wavelengths that drive photosynthesis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
substances that absorb visible light.
different pigments absorb different wavelengths. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| main photosynthesis pigment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| broaden the spectrum used for photosynthesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
may be used in photosynthesis, but importantly absorb excessive light that would damage chlorophyll.
Orangy, redish colour. |
|
|
Term
| What happens to pigments when they absorb light? |
|
Definition
goes from a ground state to an unstable excited state.
When excited electrons fall back to the ground state, photons are given off, an after glow. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| after glow given off after excited electrons return to a ground state. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| consists of a reaction-center complex surrounded by light-harvesting complexes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Light-Harvesting Complexes |
|
Definition
pigment molecules bond to proteins.
Transfer the energy of photons to the reaction center. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Functions first and absorbs a wavelength of 680nm (called P680). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| absorbs a wavelength of 700nm (called P700). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| uses only photosystem I adn produces ATP, but not NADPH, no oxygen is released. Surplus ATP is generated, satisfying the higher demand in the Calvin Cycle. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Primary Pathway. Involves both photosystems and produces ATP and NADPH using light energy. |
|
|
Term
| Linear Electron Flow step 1 |
|
Definition
| 1.photon hits a pigment and its energy is passed among pigment molecules until it excites P680. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An excited electron from P680 is transferred to the primary electron acceptor (now called P680+) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| P680+ is a very strong oxidizing agent. H2O is split by enzymes, and the electrons are transferred from H atoms to P680+ thus reducing it to P680. O2 is released as a by-product of this reaction. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Electrons fall down an electron transport chain from PSII to PSI |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a proton gradient forms across the thylakoid membrane and diffusion of H+ (protons) across the membrane drives ATP synthesis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In PSI, transferred light energy excited P700, which looses an electron to an electron acceptor. P700+ accepts an electron passed down from PSII via the electron transport chain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Electrons again fall down an electron transport chain.
Electrons are then transferred to NADP+ and reduced it to NADPH (to be used in the calvin cycle) |
|
|
Term
| Chemiosmosis & Different energy sources |
|
Definition
| used by chloroplasts and mitochondria to generate ATP. M=transfer of chemical energy from food to ATP. C=transform light energy into chemical energy to ATP. |
|
|
Term
| Diff in Spatial Organization (M&C) |
|
Definition
M=protons pumped to the intermembrane space and drive ATP synthesis as they diffuse back into the mitochondrial matrix.
c=protons are pumped into the thylakoid space& drive ATP synthesis as they diffuse back into the stroma. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Builds sugar from smaller molecules by using ATP & the reducing power of electrons carried by NADPH. Carbon enters the cycle as carbon dioxide and leaves as a sugar named glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). For net synthesis of 1G3P, the cycle must take place 3 times, fixing 3 molecules of carbon dioxide. |
|
|
Term
| 3 Phases of the Calvin Cycle |
|
Definition
1. Carbon fixation (catalyzed by rubisco)
2. Reduction (gaining of electrons)
3. Regeneration of the carbon dioxide acceptor (RuBP) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1carbon dioxide->binding carbon breaks in half (rubisco)->2ATP become 2 ADP(gain phosphorus from ATP)->2NADPH becomes 2NADP+ & 2P->Reduction: 1 glyceraldehyde3-phosphate-> a sugar output->regeneration of carbon dioxide acceptor (RuBP) |
|
|
Term
| What do plants do on hot, dry days? |
|
Definition
| plants close stomata to conserve water which limits photosynthesis by reducing access to carbon dioxide and cause oxygen to build up. This is photorespiration. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Consumes oxygen and organic fuel and releases carbon dioxide without producing ATP or sugar. Rubisco adds oxygen instead of carbon dioxide in the calvin cycle, producing a two-carbon compound |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| initial fixation of CO2 via rubisco, forms a 3-carbon compound. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| possibly most abundant protein on earth |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| minimize the cost of photorespiration by incorporating oxygen into 4-Carbon compounds in mesophyll cells. Have different leaf anatomy. 4 carbon compounds are exported to bundle-sheath cells, where they release carbon dioxide that is then used in the calvin cycle. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| enzyme used by c4 plants. has a higher affinity for carbon dioxide than rubisco does; it can fix carbon dioxide even when carbon dioxide concentrations are low. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| open their stomata at night, incorporating co2 into organic acids. Stomata close during the day,&co2 is released from organic acids & used in calvin cycle. ex)sugar cane and pineapple |
|
|
