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| 1,All living things are composed of cells.2,New cells arise from pre-existing cells.3,The cell is the smallest living thing that is capable of the characteristics of life. |
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| Defined as the organism’s ability to keep the internal environment within a narrow range. The model cell for this topic: Pancreas (animal cell) |
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1,000X magnification.
Capable of distinguishing points 200 nm apart. |
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30,000X magnification.
Capable of distinguishing points 0.5 nm apart.
Better light source.
3-D (topographical). |
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| Scanning electron microscope |
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30,000X magnification.
Capable of distinguishing points 0.5 nm apart.
Better light source.
Detailed 2-D. |
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| Transmission electron microscope |
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Three Main regions of the cell;
Protection and food ___
Energy and Product ___
Brains and Control Center ___ |
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Definition
| Cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus. |
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Definition
Found in both plant and animal cells. May be also referred to as the “plasma” membrane.
Surrounds and protects the cell.
Separates the cytoplasm from the outside world.
Consists of a phospholipid bilayer.
Is a fluid-like structure.
Has proteins imbedded in the phospholipid layer. |
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| ___ is a rigid protective layer made of cellulose |
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Control center of the cell / Brains of the cell.
Contains instructions on how to assemble protein (Insulin) molecules which means it carries information on who and what we are.
Has a double membrane structure called the nuclear envelope. |
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Membrane contains pores that allow large macromolecules to pass through like DNA.
makes and stores DNA – the genetic material.
makes and stores RNA - directs protein synthesis. |
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contains Nucleoli – condensed areas of chromatin where ribosomal RNA is made.
Ribosomes are made here and pass out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm to participate in protein synthesis. |
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| Diffuse, stringy, threadlike material that is difficult to see with a microscope |
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| Thick, rod-like structures visible during cell division. |
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Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis;
-Made up of RNA and several proteins.
Consists of two sub-units: One small and one large. |
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Lysosomes
Golgi Bodies
Secretory Vesicles |
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| Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) |
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Definition
| Membrane-wrapped canal system site where Insulin is first made, packaged, and processed. Connects with the nuclear envelope and branches through the cytoplasm. Responsible for the production, packaging, storage, and secretion of cellular products (macromolecules). |
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| Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) |
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Definition
Have ribosomes attached.
Usually found in cells that produce protein.
(Pancreas) |
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| Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) |
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Definition
Do not have ribosomes attached.
Found in cells that produce steroids or lipids.
(Testes, ovaries and Adrenal glands) |
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Definition
2nd packaging and processing step in the membrane canal system.
Processes or modifies the cellular products.
Continuous with the Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Composed of an inner and outer face.
Appears as a stack of flattened membranes. |
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Definition
3rd step in the Membrane Canal system.
Generated from outer surface of the Golgi.
Transports the cell’s product (insulin) from the Golgi to the cell membrane by fusing with the cell membrane, thus expelling the product out of the cell.
Designed to protect cellular product. |
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Definition
Formed by the Golgi apparatus and remain inside the cell; do not fuse with the cell membrane.
Considered to perform the defensive and digestive functions of the cell.
Contains hydrolytic enzymes that break down molecules and cell debris.
Can fuse with incoming vesicles to break down the contents (bacteria or macromolecules). |
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Generally large storage areas found in plant and animal cells.
Most well observed in plant cells. Example; the tonoplast vacuole viewed in the Elodea cells.
Function as storage area for sugars, water, enzymes, etc … |
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| The organelles ___ (animal) and the ___ (plant) produce ATP, the organic molecule used most immediately by the cell for energy. |
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| Mitochondria, Chloroplasts |
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Defined as the entire cell filamentous protein network which:
Enables the cell to maintain shape.
Anchors the cellular organelles.
Allows cellular contents to move.
Controlled by the centrosome (MTOC*) located near the nucleus.
* - Microtubule Organizing Center |
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Definition
Small, hollow cylinders made of a globular protein, tubulin, which occurs in two forms. Alpha and beta tubulin. Considered moderately sized, thick filaments based on 25 nm diameter.
Form spindle fibers during cell division. If not, Down’s Syndrome.
Consists of a hollow cylinder made up of thirteen rows of the dimer assembly. Are assembled two pieces (dimers) of tubulin at a time. |
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Definition
Also referred to as microfilaments, such as those found in skeletal muscle (movement) cells.
Are long, thin protein filaments, 7 nm diameter, which occurs in bundles.
Made up of the protein Actin.
Can assemble and disassemble.
Filaments lie close to the cell membrane. |
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Definition
Are rope-like collection of microtubules that give mechanical strength to the cell.
Approximately 8 –11 nm in diameter.
May be found in cell-to-cell junctions to give strength |
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Are short, hollow cylinders of 9 + 0 pattern of microtubules. Consists of an outer ring of nine triplets, but no microtubules located in the center of the centriole.
Found in animal cells, not in plant cells. Previously thought to have played in role in Cell Division. Prior to cell division, centrioles replicate. During cell division, centrioles separate so that each new cell receives one pair. |
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Possess the same 9 + 0 structural pattern as centrioles.
Serves as the organizing structure for the cilia and flagella. |
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Structures extending outside the cell that are responsible for cell motion (locomotion).
Both possess the same 9 + 2 structural pattern; differs from Basal Bodies |
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Are smaller, hair-like extensions of the cell.
Shorter structures than flagella that move in a wave-like motion.
Found in the Respiratory system, ear, fallopian tubes. |
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| A larger pole-shaped extension of cell. Move in a whip-like, dynamic motion. For Humans: it is found only in Sperm cells. are responsible for cell motion (locomotion). Their structure is a pattern of nine membrane wrapped microtubules around a central core of two microtubules. ( 9 + 2 )These components tend to move in a sliding motion that produces the movement. |
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| Extracellular Matrix (ECM) in Animal Cells: |
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Definition
ECM is a collection of glycoproteins outside the cell that include:
Tight junctions
Anchoring junctions
Gap Junctions |
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| forms tight seals around cells preventing leakage of extracellular fluid between epithelial cells. Found in the digestive tract. |
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| act like rivets to fasten cells together in strong sheets. Common in tissues subject to stretching or mechanical stress such as skin or heart tissue |
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| also called communication junctions are channels that allow small molecules to flow through protein-lined pores between neighboring cells. Also found in heart muscle. |
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| Extracellular Matrix (ECM) in plant cells |
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Definition
| Plant cells possess plasmodesmata – which are channels between cells that form a network of circulatory and communication systems. (Cytoplasm extends through these structures). |
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| Organelles fall into one of four caregories: |
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Definition
Manufacturing
Breakdown
Energy processing
Support, Movement, Communication |
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| he minimum amount of energy required to initiate a reaction. One source is heat, another is enzymes. |
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| They facilitate chemical reactions by lowering the Activation Energy required for the reaction to proceed. They do this by Moving the substrates closer together. Aligning the substrates in correct geometric orientation for the reaction. Promoting acid – base reactions between side chains of reactants. Effectively shutting out, or removing, H2O molecules from interfering with the reaction. |
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| Reactant molecules in reactions involving enzymes. |
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| The location on the enzyme where the substrate molecules temporarily bind, has a specific shape |
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| The binding of the enzyme to its specific substrate produces a change in the enzyme structure that allows the reaction to proceed at an accelerated rate. Induced state is not a perfect fit at the start. This is quite stable. |
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Optimal pH
Optimal temperature
Optimal salt concentration
Optimal Substrate concentration |
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| Enzyme involved in the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. Released from ruptured peroxisomes. |
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| Process of protein losing its three dimensional shape due to changes in pH and extreme temperatures. |
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| “Passive” movement across membrane |
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Definition
Does not require energy (ATP).
This type of movement across the membrane is dependent on size, shape, charge, concentration difference, and kinetic energy (temperature) of molecules involved. |
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Definition
| : Diffusion that requires a carrier for small sugars (glucose), amino acids and similar-sized molecules. |
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Definition
This movement across a membrane or barrier requires the expenditure of energy (ATP) and a carrier protein.
Is the opposite of diffusion, the molecules move against (or upstream) the concentration gradient as opposed to moving downstream or down the concentration gradient. Involves the movement of small or large molecules. These carrier proteins tend to undergo a conformational change when they bind to their specific target molecule.
Are required in active transport and facilitated diffusion. |
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| Examples of active transport |
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Definition
Endocytosis, such as Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis.
Exocytosis, such as the production and distribution of cellular product (insulin). |
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Definition
Materials coming into the cell via vesicle entry or sac formation.
Engulfing debris or nutrients into the cell.
The sac is derived from the cell membrane.
Phagocytosis: Cell eating
Pinocytosis: Cell drinking |
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Definition
Release of cellular products and / or cell waste via vesicule or sac fusion.
Synonymous with “secretion |
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| Cell Membrane Structure and Concept |
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Definition
| Regulates the passage of molecules into and out of the cell. All cells are surrounded by a cell membrane. Considered a “dynamic, fluid, phospholipid bilayer”. Contains proteins imbedded in the membrane. Membrane also contains cholesterol which gives it the fluid, flexible, fatty property. Thus the model used to describe the membrane is called the “fluid-mosaic model” structure.(Fluid texture and movement. Randomly dispersed protein pattern.) |
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Definition
Possess various functions. Five types: Cell recognition: usually
glycoproteins such as the MHC proteins.
Critical for immune system function.
Organ transplants.
Multi-Histo Compatibility (MHC)
Channel: Allow for the proper flow of selected nutrients in and wastes out of the cell. Na+, K+, Cl-, Mg++ ions.
Transport system that spans the whole membrane. |
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| Movement across membrane - General Principles |
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Definition
| Molecules usually cross the membrane by way of diffusion, carrier molecules, or vesicle formation. H2O moves freely across the membrane. Small non-polar molecules and gases (CO2, O2) also pass freely. Ions, large, and small, as well as polar molecules’ movement are restricted. The membrane is called “selectively permeable”. Also called a “semi-permeable” membrane. |
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The capacity to do work.
Living things need a constant supply of energy from their surroundings since energy can not be created and when one form of energy is converted to another, some is lost. |
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| Exothermic (exergonic)reactions |
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Definition
(reactions that release heat or energy)
Reactants possess more energy than product. |
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| Endothermic (endergonic) reactions |
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(reactions that require heat or energy)
Products contain more energy than reactants. |
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1st Law:
Energy is neither created nor destroyed.
2nd Law:
The transfer of energy from one form to another form is never 100% efficient. Some energy is always lost as heat. |
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Defined as the sum total of all reactions needed to carry on cellular functions. Occurs in a series of sequential, step-wise reactions, each involving a small amount of energy.
Characterized by the presence of reactants (also called substrates), products, and enzymes. Each metabolic reaction utilizes its own enzyme to facilitate the process. |
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Definition
Defined as tightly bound, non-protein organic and inorganic molecules that assist enzymes. Are considered small in size.
Ribozymes: Recent discovery. RNA molecules that function as enzymes.
Co-factors: Individual ions that bind to enzymes to stabilize the structure.
Mg2+
Se-2
Zn2+ |
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Definition
| Large, organic molecules that bind to enzymes, and serve as carriers to electrons. |
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: Competition from another molecule that closely resembles the substrate.
This competitor competes for the active site on the enzyme. If successful, stops the reaction. |
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| Two types of Competitive Inhibition |
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Definition
Reversible: Example: Anti-freeze poisoning. The active ingredient in anti-freeze, Ethylene glycol, binds to the enzyme ADH which produces a toxic waste product harmful to the kidneys.
However consumption of alcohol temporarily bind to and deactivate the ADH enzymes which then allows the ehtylene glycol molecules to pass harmlessly through the kidneys and out the body in the urine. |
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| Non-Competitive Inhibition |
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Definition
| A competitor molecule binding to a location on the enzyme other than the active site. It causes a slight conformational change in the active site that slows down the reaction but does not necessarily stop it. |
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| Aerobic Cellular Respiration |
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Definition
| A series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions where the original substrate is completely oxidized in the presence of oxygen to produce CO2 and H2O and 36-38 ATP molecules. The glucose “fragments” (protons, electrons) are stored in a “reservoir” or “dam” in the intermembrane space. |
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| Aerobic Cellular Respiration consists of four steps. |
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Definition
Glycolysis
Transition Reaction
Krebs cycle
Electron transport system – also called Oxidative Phosphorylation. |
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Definition
Defined as a series of enzymatic reactions and occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell + does not require oxygen.
C6H12O6 ( 6 -carbon ) ===> Pyruvate ( 3 -carbon ) + 2 ATP +NADH2 molecules
Pyruvate now enters the mitochondria.
NAD picks up and moves two electrons (NADH2) to the electron transport system – where the reservoir is located. |
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Definition
| Occurs in the matrix of mitochondria. 3-carbon Pyruvate is broken down (oxidized) into a 2-carbon molecule called Acetyl Co-A. No ATP generated here. The removed electrons and protons are taken to the electron transport system via NADH2. |
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Definition
Occurs in the matrix within the mitochondria.
2-Carbon Acetyl Co-A molecules ===> CO2
2 ATP molecules are produced at this step. NAD continues to oxidize the substrate (glucose) and becomes NADH2 , passing the electrons and protons to the reservoir located at the electron transport system (step 4). |
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Electron Transport system
Also known as Oxidative Phosphorylation. |
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Definition
Occurs at the cristae of the mitochondria. A number of reactions and enzymes (NAD) work here to maintain the reservoir of protons and electrons that have been deposited into in the intermembrane space. As a result of this reservoir of charged particles, a steep electrochemical gradient is established.Most of the ATP generated from the original C6H12O6 molecule comes from this step of ACR. .
Nets a yield of 32--34 ATP molecules.
In these type of reactions protons and electrons are transferred, chemical bonds are broken and energy is released |
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Term
Anaerobic Respiration
Also known as Fermentation. |
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Definition
The inefficient breakdown of (C6H12O6) glucose in the absence of oxygen. Yields only 2 ATP per glucose molecule entering the cycle.First step Glycolysis (cytoplasm)
Second step: Animals Pyruvate ===> C2H4COOH (Lactic Acid)“Lactate Fermentation”
Microbes Pyruvate ===> C2H5OH + CO2 (Ethanol)“Alcoholic Fermentation” |
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| Assembly of macromolecules |
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| Breakdown of macromolecules |
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| Proteins can enter the metabolic chain after |
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Definition
| they have been de-aminated. The ammonia goes to the liver for safe packaging as urea. |
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