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| Forms at about 3 weeks, folds to create a neural tube and inside the tube is the ventricular zone filled with stem cells |
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| Contains ventricular zone which is filled with stem cells |
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| Meaning "total potential," stem cells begin this way and later become pluripotential which means "more narrow potential." |
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| When a growth cone reaches it's target, a synapse is formed. Initially, too many neurons and synapses are created. |
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| Guide post cells direct growth cones by releasing various chemicals that either attract or repel |
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| Target cells attract cones with neurotrophins, a family of proteins that induce the survival, development and function of neurons |
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| neurotrophins (e.g. nerve growth factor) |
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| Protein that induces the survival, development and function of neurons |
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| Programmed cell death or "Pruning," of unnecessary synapsis is a vital part of development. Apoptosis is prevented by neurotrophins (induce neuron survival) and insufficient stimulation can cause excessive pruning; producing mental retardation. |
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| Developmentally, proceeds from the hindbrain up. Prefrontal cortex is the last area to be myelinated |
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| Plasticity is the ability of the brain to change throughout life. In terms of adult plasticity, neurogenesis (development of new neurons) continues in the hippocampus |
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| neurogenesis (hippocampus) |
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| Creation of new neurons, was first thought to only occur in development but recent research has shown neurogenesis in the hippocampus |
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| Dendrites branching out to create new synapses. Increased in stimulating environments (environment literally shapes our brain!) |
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| New axons branching off an original axon. Especially prominent after damage. |
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| transneuronal degeneration |
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| When a neuron dies, post-synaptic neurons may also die because it has not recieved any new information so "thinks" its no longer necessary and dies. |
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| Chromosomally male defined as XY and female defined as XX. Determined by the sperm cell at fetilization |
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| Produce through development. Either Wolffian sytem or Mullerian system. |
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| For the first six weeks the zygote (fertilized ovum) is sexually bipotential (can be either male or female morphologically) |
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| undifferentiated genitalia |
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| Can equally become male or female. The penis is homologous (developed from the same group of cells) to the clitoris. The scrotom is homologous to the labia. At about six weeks, sexual differentiation starts |
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| Mullerian inhibiting hormone (defeminization) |
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| For males, the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome starts encoding for testis-determing factor. New testes secrete Mullerian inhibiting hormone which produces defeminization (i.e. stops producing female sex organs) |
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| androgens (masculinization) |
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| Androgens, like testostorone produce masculinization of the external genitalia, the Wolffian system, muscles, and brain. |
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| Male penis and scrotom, Female clitoris and labia. |
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| Female development is nature's default option. If nothing happens (no mullerian inhibiting hormone) a female is produce. |
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| androgen-insensitivity syndrome |
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| The male external genitalia are not produced and the child is born female |
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Refers to intermediate or atypical combinations of physical features that usually distinguish male from female.
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| congenital adrenal hyperplasia |
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Congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
In females,internal female sex organs (ovaries, uterus, and fallopian tubes) but genitals that look both male and female. May have a deep voice, excessive hair growth and facial hair, and failure to menstruate.
In males, won't appear to have problems at birth but may enter puberty at the age of 2-3. |
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| predisposition for male homosexuality |
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When a pregnant mother undergoes chronic stress during a male fetus's brain masculinization more "default" female option is expressed.
Anatomical evidence discovered by Leavay (1991) includes:
In rats produces a smaller sexually dimorphic nucleus (SDN)
In humans produces a smaller interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH - 3) |
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| sexually dimorphic nucleus |
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| In rodents, a stressed, pregnant mother gives birth to a male with a larger SDN than other male rodents |
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| interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH)I |
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| In humans, the possible homologue of the SDN |
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| analytic thinking (language; explicit memories; math) |
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| synthetic thinking (language tone; music; spatial relationships; emotions) |
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| Temporal lobe; language comprehension; damage produces receptive aphasia |
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| receptive aphasia (word salads) |
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| Receptive aphasia (Wernicke's area) patients are often unaware of their deficits, may speak in "word salads" |
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| Frontal lobe; language production; damage produces production aphasia (loss of ability to produce or understand language) |
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| Problem with recalling words or names |
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| A deficit in attention and awareness of one side of space |
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| attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |
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| encoding; storage; retrieval |
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| encoding; 7 (+/- 2) items; prefrontal cortex allows us to "pay attention" |
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| declarative / explicit memory |
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Declarative memories are those that we can express in words.
Two kinds of declarative memory.
Semantic (knowledge of facts) and Eposidic (knowledge of personal experiences) |
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| Knowledge of facts, stored throughout the cortex |
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| Knowledge of personal experiences, stored in frontal and temporal lobes |
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| nondeclarative/ implicit memory |
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Memories that are hard to verbalize.
Two main kinds
Procedural (habits/"how to" motor knowledge)
Associative (classical and operant conditioning) |
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| Habits/"how to" motor knowledge, dependent on basal ganglia |
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| H.M. had his hippocampi removed due to severe seizures. After surgery he could not form new declarative (verbal) memories but he could still learn new implicit (procedural and associative) memories |
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| Inability to create new explicit memories |
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| Inability to remember old declarative memories. Results from damage to many areas of the cortex |
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| "cells that fire together, wire together" |
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| Binds with AMPA (transmitter regulated) receptors and NMDA (transmitter and voltage-regulated) receptors |
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| transmitter-regulated; and voltage regulated |
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| AMPA receptors; NMDA receptors |
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| Dendrites branching out to create new synapses |
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| basolateral nucleus of the amygdala |
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| NMDA antagonists impede establishment of conditioning |
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| Totipotential at the start and once in place turn into pluripotential, differentiating into specific neurons. Stem cells migrate outward from ventricular zone following radial glial |
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| Critical/Sensitive Period |
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| Developmental period in which experiences have a great effect on the brain. Once these experiences are over, the same experiences have little effect. |
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| Myelinated band connecting both hemispheres of the brain. Largest commissure (anything that connects the two hemispheres) |
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Loss of ability to produce or understand language
Production aphasia (Broca's area) patients are aware of their deficit, may produce anomia.
Receptive aphasia (Wernicke's area) patients are often unaware of their deficits, may speak in "word salads" |
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