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Biological Psychology Exam 3
Vision, Other sensory systems, Wakefulness and Sleep, Reproductive behaviors,
100
Psychology
Undergraduate 2
10/12/2010

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Cards

Term
What is the law of specific nerve energies in modern terms?
Definition
activity by a particular nerve always conveys the same kind of information to the brain.
Term
Bipolar (retina)
Definition
Transmit rod info to Ganglion neurons, which sends info to brain
Term
Ganglion nerves (retina)
Definition
sends info to brain
Term
Amacrine (retina)
Definition
modulate activity of cells
Term
horizontal (retina)
Definition
inhibits bipolar cells, detect borders around objects. differences in shades of color (lateral inhibition)
Term
rods
Definition
-find in peripheral
-low light conditions, poor detail
-120 million in retina
Term
Cones
Definition
found in fovea (center portion of retina)
-detect color
-best under bright light, fine detail
-respond to particular colors
-6 million
Term
Structure of retina
Definition
Rod and cone receptors

Horizontal cells

Bipolar cells

Amacrine cells

Ganglion cells

LIGHT RAYS ^
Term
Foveal vs peripheral vision
Definition
FOVEA: speciailized for acute, detailed vision
----better acuity (sensitivity to detail)

PERIPHERAL VISION: more and more receptors converge onto bipolar and ganglion cells. brain cannot tell exact location or shape of light source
---better sensitivity to dim light
Term
Trichromatic theory
Definition
people could match any color by mixing appropriate amounts of just three wavelengths
Term
Opponent-process theory
Definition
we perceive color in terms of opposites
Term
retinex theory
Definition
cortex compares info from various parts of the retina to determine the brightness and color of an area
Term
lateral inhibition
Definition
reduction of activity in one neuron by activity in neighboring neurons

function: heighten contrasts
Term
What are the three types of ganglion neurons that ascend to the brain?
Definition
Parvocellular neurons: small cell bodies and small receptive fields, mostly in or near fovea

Magnocellular neurons: larger cell bodies and receptive fields, distributed evenly in retina

koniocellular neurons: small cell bodies, occur throughout retina
Term
Parvocellular neurons
Definition
small cell bodies and small receptive fields, mostly in or near fovea
Term
magnocellular neurons
Definition
larger cell bodies and receptive fields, distributed evenly in retina
Term
koniocellular neurons
Definition
small cell bodies, occur throughout retina
Term
sound waves
Definition
periodic compressions of air, water, or other media
Term
Amplitude
Definition
a sound wave's intensity
Term
Frequency
Definition
Number of compressions per second of a sound wave
Term
What is the perception of amplitude or frequency called?
Definition
Loudness and pitch
Term
Pinna
Definition
-alters reflections of sound waves to locate source of a sound

-fleshy part of outer ear
Term
Tympanic membrane
Definition
eardrum, vibrates at the same frequency as the sound waves that strike it
Term
What are the 3 bones that are connected to the Tympanic membrane called?
Definition
1. Hammer

2. Anvil

3. Stirrup
Term
Oval window
Definition
-membrane of outer ear, adjacent to stirrup

vibrations are transmitted here from tympanic membrane
Term
What is the cochlea and what is it filled with?
Definition
-snail shaped structure in inner ear

-filled with 3 fluid-filled tunnels: scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala tympani
Term
What are auditory receptors in cochlea called?
Definition
hair cells
Term
Frequency theory
Definition
-low frequencies
-basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with a sound, causing auditory nerve axons to produce action potentials at the same frequency

-rate of action potentials = frequency of sound

-up to 100 Hz
Term
What are auditory receptors in cochlea called?
Definition
hair cells
Term
place theory
Definition
-high frequency -basilar membrane--each area along membrane is tuned to a specific frequency, like a piano -4000 Hz to 20,000 Hz -stimulate hair cells farther down cochlea -> increase frequency of sound
Term
What is the cochlea and what is it filled with?
Definition
-snail shaped structure in inner ear

-filled with 3 fluid-filled tunnels: scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala tympani
Term
What are auditory receptors in cochlea called?
Definition
hair cells
Term
The volley principle
Definition
-normal pitch (like human speech)

-4000 Hz

-action potential does not match each frequency, so another action potential needs to "fill" what frequencies it missed
Term
In what lobe is the primary auditory cortex located?
Definition
temporal
Term
Through which colliculus does auditory information travel on the way to the auditory cortex?
Definition
inferior colliculus
Term
Where does auditory information travel?
Definition
cochlea -> medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus -> auditory cortex
Term
3 methods used to localize sounds
Definition
-intensity: sound becomes louder for one ear

-time of arrival: what ear is it reached first?

-phase difference between the ears - if turn head away from the source, it is phased out
Term
Conductive deafness
Definition
-middle ear not transmitting sound properly

-little bones not working
Term
nerve deafness
Definition
-inner ear

-neurons not communicating sound; cochlea damage, hair cells, nerves, etc

-german measles, aspirin, loud noises
Term
tinnitus
Definition
ringing in ears

like phantom limb for hearing
Term
What are the mechanical senses?
Definition
-respond to pressure, bending, or other distortions of a receptor

-pain, touch, etc
Term
3 different types of cells that are used for shape analysis
Definition
Simple cells – Primary visual cortex. have receptive fields with fixed excitatory and inhibitory zones. More light in excitatory = more cell responds. Responds to a stimulus in only one location.

Complex cells: In areas V1 and V2. Responsive to moving objects in same orientation. Larger receptive field

Hypercomplex cells: has an inhibitory zone where response is weakened
Term
Simple cells
Definition
Primary visual cortex. have receptive fields with fixed excitatory and inhibitory zones. More light in excitatory = more cell responds. Responds to a stimulus in only one location.
Term
Complex cells
Definition
In areas V1 and V2. Responsive to moving objects in same orientation. Larger receptive field
Term
Hypercomplex cells
Definition
has an inhibitory zone where response is weakened
Term
Vestibular sense
Definition
movement of head (balance)

-has semicircular canals that are lined with hair cells to depict movement
Term
dermatome
Definition
area of skin connected to a particular spinal nerve
Term
Why is pain information carried relatively slowly?
Definition
-axons are unmyelinated, so slower
Term
Different pain levels - axons
Definition
Thicker and faster: convey sharp pain

Thinner axons: convey dull pain
Term
What neurotransmitters are releases in the spinal cord in response to mild or strong pain?
Definition
mild: glutamate

strong: substance p
Term
where is the detection of pain processed?
Definition
somatosensory cortex

cortex of contralateral hemisphere
Term
where is the response to pain processed?
Definition
Somatosensory cortex

emotional response in prefrontal cortex
Term
how are endorphins and opiates similar?
Definition
opiates made outside of body, endorphins made inside

block pain by inhibiting ascending pain afferent in medulla

block release of substance p
Term
where are the chemical receptors for pain located?
Definition
spinal chord and periaqueductal grey area of midbrain, medulla
Term
gate theory
Definition
if disturb signal for pain and flood pathway with other sensations, then decrease pain experience, because only so much touch info can reach brain at a time.
Term
what are placebos effective for?
Definition
-emotion

-decrease response in cingulate cortex
Term
nocebos
Definition
-suggest that the drug will increase pain

-worsen pain by increasing anxiety
Term
fibromyalgia
Definition
-neurological disorder

-widespread musculoskeletal pain

-possible predisposition: psychological issues, trauma, viruses
Term
labeled-line principle
Definition
each receptor responds to a limited range of stimuli, has a direct line to brain

and meaning depends on which neurons are active
Term
across-fiber principle
Definition
each receptor responds to a wider range of stimuli
Term
in short, all or nearly all perceptions depend on...
Definition
the pattern across an array of axons
Term
What is the insula known as?
Definition

-Primary taste cortex -A bad taste will be processed in this region and may result in facial response that we call disgust.

 -sweet, sour, salty, bitter glutamate

Term
Where is the olfactory bulb located relative to the nasal passage?
Definition
-above it

receptors in olfactory epithelium (top of nasal cavity)

-receptors replaced every 38 days
Term
zeitgeber
Definition
-means "time-giver" in german

-light is the dominant zeitgeber for land animals

-effects sleep schedule
Term
Jet lag
Definition
sleepy during day, sleeplessness at night
Term
Melatonin pills
Definition
taken in evening: not effective

taken in day: effective, b/c natural levels of meltatonin not very night
Term
melatonin
Definition
-pineal gland, increases sleepiness 2-3 hours before bedtime, decreases 2-3 before waking up
Term
4 stages of sleep
Definition
with the first stage being less sleepy and the fourth stage being a deep sleep. After the fourth stage, REM (rapid eye movement) sleep occurs, during which dreams often occur.
Term
wakefulness
Definition
-pontomesencephalon: neurons relrease acetylcholine + glutamate in basal forebrain, hypothalamus, and thalamus
(excitatory effects)

-hypothalamus: neurons release HISTAMINE (excitatory), and OREXIN (stimulate acetylcholine neurons)
Term
Alertness
Definition
Basal Forebrain: neurons release acetylcholine in thalamus + cortex
Term
Sleepiness
Definition
Basal forebrain: neurons also release GABA in cortex

ADENOSINE: inhibits basal forebrain acetylcholine
Term
Insomnia
Definition
causes: diet, poor sleeping conditions, stress, neurological problems, lactose intolerance
Term
Superchiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

-what happens if damaged?
Definition
-causes pineal gland to release melatonin

-above optic chiasm, part of hypothalamus

-controls circadium rhythms for sleep + body temp

-if damaged: bodys rhythms less consistent and no longer synchronized to environment
Term
What does the reticular formation do regarding cortical arousal?
Definition
increases cortical arousal
Term
pontomesencephalon
Definition
part of reticular formation

-maintains arousal during wakefulness and increases alertness
Term
locus coerulus
Definition
-located in pons

-releases norepinephrine in cortex, strengthens memories
Term
histamine
Definition
excitatory, reduce drowsiness
Term
What impact does acetylcholine and GABA, when released from neurons in the basal forebrain, have on alertness?
Definition
acetylcholine: excitatory, increase arousal, make more awake

GABA: inhbits synaptic activity; induces sleep
Term
Adenosine
Definition
inhibits basal forebrain acetylcholine

as adenosine decreases, acetylcholine increases

makes more drowsy

-caffeine blocks adenosine receptors
Term
narcolepsy
Definition
frequent periods of sleep during day

-gradual/sudden attacks of sleepiness during the day

-cataplexy: muscle weakness

-sleep paralysis

-hallucinations
Term
What neurotransmitter may mediate the neuropathology of narcolepsy?
Definition
people with narcolepsy lack cells that produce Orexin in hypothalamus
Term
How do the sleep aids Ambien, Lunesta, and Rozerem act in the brain to promote sleep?
Definition
Ambien + Lunesta: facilitate activation of GABA

Rozerem: acts on melatonin receptors - agonist
Term
What are night terrors and at what age do they generally occur? During what sleep stage do nights terrors typically occur?
Definition
-occur more common in children

experiences of high anxiety during sleep, causing person to wake in terror

occur during NREM sleep
Term
What areas of the hypothalamus monitors and regulates body temperature?

What are the two ways in which this area monitors body temperature?
Definition
-preoptic area (POA)
-Anterior thalamus

----POA/AH have receptors that respond to temperautre: shiver or sweat
Term
By what mechanism does infection initiate fever?
Definition
white blood cells (leukocytes) release CYTOKINES, which stimulate the vagus nerve ---> signals hypothalamus to initiate fever
Term
Osmotic thirst
Definition
-water moves from low to high concentration of salt

-receptors around 3rd ventricle (leaky) --> responsive to high salt levels

ADH released from pituitary
Term
Hypovolemic thirst
Definition
-loss of body fluid (blood, water, sweat, diarrhea, etc)

Increase in Angiotensin II: released from blood, reaches III ventricle + activates neurons in hypothalamus + releases angiotensin II as a neurotransmitter in hypothalamus -> increase thirst
Term
Vasopressin
Definition
enables kidneys to reabsorb water from urine
Term
make sense of the interactions between glucose, insulin and glucagon
Definition
liver maintains glucose by converting stored nutrients

glucose regulates: insulin and glucagons

-INSULIN: enables glucose to enter cells if...
used as fuel, stored as fat, or stored as glycogen

GLUCAGONS: stimlate liver to convert stored glycogen to glucose
Term
What symptoms occur as a result of damage to the lateral hypothalamus? What are the stages of recovery for a damaged lateral hypothalamus?
Definition
-damage results in APHAGIA (not eating enough) and ADIPSIA (not drinking enough)

Stage 1: Aphagia and Adipsia

Stage 2: Anorexia. drink sweet water

Stage 3: Adipsia. refuse plain water still, eating

Stage 4: near-recovery
Term
What happens if damage selectively occurs to the ventromedial hypothalamus?
Definition
overeating (HYPER-PHAGIA)

more meals
Term
How do steroid hormones exert their effects?
Definition
generated from cholestrol: estrogen (estradiol, progesterone) + androgens (testerone)
Term
Where is the sexually dimorphic nucleus and what is the relative size between males and females?
Definition
-located in anterior hypothalamus

-2-3 times larger in males, due to release of testosterone
Term
Compare the dependence upon hormone for sexual activity in rodents, cats, dogs, non-human primates and humans
Definition
rats: no sexual activity

dog/cat: reduced sexual activity

nonhuman primates: semi-reduced

humans
Term
viagra
Definition
enhances Nitric Oxide levels in bloodstream to increase blood flow
Term
What are two functions or roles that oxytocin has?
Definition
-stimulates contractions, maternal behaviors
-arousal
-decreases anxiety after orgasm
-facilitates formation of bonds
Term
What may happen if testosterone levels are too low in males or too high in females?
Definition
-low testosterone in males: develop female physical appearance

-high testosterone in females: masculine appearance
Term
What is the difference between gender and sex?
Definition
gender: how you identify yourself

sex: genetics
Term
Interstitial nucleus III
Definition
-in anterior hypothalamus

-larger in heterosexual males
Term
Superchiasmatic nucleus
Definition
smaller in homosexual men

-testosterone depletion produces similar effects in male rats (smaller SCN), advances towards male rats
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