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Biological Concepts of Health: Final
University of Guelph BIOL*1080
965
Biology
Undergraduate 1
04/06/2015

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Term
3 person baby
Definition
A baby conceieved by a new reproductive technology where the nucleus of one woman's egg cell is inserted into another woman's egg cell and then fertilized by sperm. There are three genomes present; both biological parents, plus the mitochondral genome of the egg donor. Used if a woman has a mitochondrial disease she does not want to pass on to her children.
Term
9/11
Definition
In September 2001 there was a terrorist attack on the US World Trade Centre. A year later, between 12% and 35% of witnesses suffered from PTSD. A lot of dust was released during the disaster, whcih could be cancer-causing. Rescue workers who were involved are more likely to develop autoimmune disorders.
Term
ABO blood types
Definition
A series of blood types including type A, B, AB, and O. There are A antigens and B antigens.
Term
Acceptance
Definition

"I am ready"

The fifth and final stage of dying. Stops battling with emotions. Becomes tired and weak. Need for sleep increases. Wakeful periods are less frequent. Becomes passive towards death. Void of feelings or pain. May no longer welcome visitors or wish to engage in conversation.

Term
Accessory organs
Definition
Organs that are not part of the GI tract, but play a role in digestion. Salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
Term
Achlorhydria
Definition
A disorder of secretion in the GI tract.
Term
Acidosis
Definition

aka Ketosis

Build-up of ketone bodies in the blood. Occurs during extended starvation, untreated diabetes, or low-carbohydrate diets.

Term
Acromegaly
Definition
A condition caused by a tumour in the anterior pituitary gland. GH secretion increases in adulthood, causing bones to thicken but not to lengthen. The person has an enlarged tongue, hands, feet, and face. Life expectancy is reduced.
Term
Actin myofibril
Definition
A muscle protein involved in contraction of skeletal muscle.
Term
Active immunity
Definition
The body actively defends itself by producing memory B and T cells. Occurs naturally or is induced by a vaccination. Effect is delayed but long-lasting.
Term
Acute LBP
Definition
Low back pain lasting less than 6 weeks.
Term
Adaptaion
Definition
A source of stress. Difficulty adapting to life's changes.
Term
Adaptive response
Definition
Adjustment where the mind and body attempt to restore homeostasis. Varies in intensity and manifestation based on individual, stressor, and timing of stressor.
Term
Addison's disease
Definition
A condition caused by defiiency in aldosterone and cortisol. An auto-immune disorder where the immune system destorys cells of the adrenal cortex. Weight loss, fatigue, electrolyte imbalance, poor appetite, poor resistnce to stress, and bronzing of the skin. May be caused by inadequate ACTH secretion from the pituitary gland. Treated with hormone tablets. John F. Kennedy had Addison's disease.
Term
Adhesives
Definition
A component of cartilage. Mediate the molecular interactions between chondrocytes and collagen fibrils. Fibronectin, chondronectin, and anchorin CII.
Term
Adipocytes
Definition
The parenchymal cells of adipose tissue.
Term
Adiponectin
Definition
A hormone that regulates blood glucose. Effects are similar to leptin. Found at 100 times the concentration of leptin.
Term
Adipose tissue
Definition
Includes endocrine glands that release over 100 factors that regulate the metabolism of fat, carbohydrates, and protein, including leptin. Its parenchymal cells are adipocytes. Stores triglycerides. On the periphery of the body and around internal organs. Varies in size and shape from one individual to the next; in men it is an average of 20% of body weight; in women 25%. Too much adipose tissue is associated with cancer, arthritis, heart disease, and diabetes. Lack of adipose tissue is lipotoxicity.
Term
Adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL)
Definition
Regulates lipolysis.
Term
Adrenal cortex
Definition
The outer part of an adrenal gland. Secretes twenty different lipid-soluble glucocorticoids, mineralcorticoids, and gonadocorticoids. Secretion is stimulated by ACTH from the pituitary gland.
Term
ADP
Definition
The less energetic form of ATP. Also acts as an autorine signal in activated platelets.
Term
Adrenal gland
Definition

"Upon kidney"

Endocrine glands each about the size of an almond. There is one above each kidney. Has two parts: the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. 

Term
Adrenal medulla
Definition
The inner part of an adrenal gland. Secretes water-soluble hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Term
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Definition
A pituitary hormone stimulates the adrenal glands to secrete cortisol. Released by the hypothalamus during stress response.
Term
Aerobic
Definition
A classification of bacteria. Live in environments in which free oxygen is present.
Term
Ageism
Definition
Discrimination based on age.
Term
Agglutinate
Definition
A clump of red blood cells when they have come into contact with an antibody in the plasma which matches their blood type markers. Indicates blood type in blood tests. If it occurs within the body, due to a mismatched blood donation, or hemolytic disease of the newborn, it can be fatal; blood vessels are blocked, cells may break open, releasing hemoglobin that clogs filtering systems in the kidneys.
Term
Aging
Definition
Patterns of life changes that occur in species as they grow older.
Term
Agranulocytes
Definition
White blood cells that lack granules, or have very small granules. Includes monocytes and lymphocytes.
Term
Alarm (GAS)
Definition
The first step of GAS. A stressor is perceived. Slight drop in homeostasis. Fight or flight response. Emotional stimulation starts a physical reaction. ANS is activated.
Term
Alarm (immune response)
Definition
The fourth step in the immune response. Effector helper T cells activvate naive B cells and naive cytotoxic T cells. This step may take hours.
Term
Albumin
Definition
The most abundant type of plasma protein. Important for water balancing of blood. Transports fatty acids in the blood.
Term
Aldosterone
Definition
A mineralocorticoid secreted by the adrenal cortex. Can only work if TH is present. Deficiency in aldosterone can cause Addison's disease.
Term
Alert
Definition
The third step in the immune response. Specific helper T cells are activated by macrophages, usually in the lymph nodes. The macrophage and helper T cells must collide. Antigen binds to helper T cell MHC marker.
Term
Allergen
Definition
An antigen which is not actually harmful to the body, but can cause an allergic reaction.
Term
Allergic reaction
Definition
When the body is exposed to allergen, mast cells are triggered by IgE antibodies and release granules of histamine and other chemicals. Swelling, release of mucous, and contraction of smooth muscle. Includes hay fever, asthma attack, food allergies, hives, and anaphylactic shock.
Term
Allergy
Definition
An overreaction by the immune system to an allergen. Exposure to allergens causes an allergic reaction. Treated with antihistamines, or by gradually desensitizing the immune system to the allergen by repeated exposure; over time IgGs are released instead of IgEs.
Term
Allostasis
Definition
Phrase coined by Sterling and Eyer in 1988. Takes into account that internal environments of homeostasis are not constant. There are variations in set point. The body works to maintain a constant state of change.
Term
Alpha cells
Definition
Cells in the pancreas that secrete glucagon.
Term
Alveolar epithelial cells
Definition
The parenchymal cells of the lungs.
Term
Alzheimer's disease
Definition
A form of dementia. A chronic condition involving changes in nerve fibres of the brain; results in mental disorientation. Can be prevented with education and cognitive activities.
Term
Amino acids
Definition

aka Proteins

An essential nutrient.

Term
Amino peptidase
Definition
An enzyme released by the small intestine. Digests peptides into amino acids.
Term
Amygdala
Definition
Part of the brain. An almond-shaped structure involved in processing and remembering strong emotions such as fear. Located in the temporal lobe just in front of the hippocampus.
Term
Amylase
Definition
An enzyme produced by the pancreas. Digests polysaccharides into disaccharides.
Term
Anabolic androgenic steroids
Definition
A drug prohibited at all times in sporting competitions. Includes exogenus AAS, endogenous AAS, and other anabolic agents. The effective dose is more than what the body would create. The dose of hormone and hormone agonist is not timed to mimic natural hormone production. Used by athletes, movie stars, and musicians. Makes the person hyper-muscular and allows for more continuous training. Has side effects and risks; the person takes on an impulsive, quick-to-rage personality, and has increased risk for pancreatisis.
Term
Anabolic hormone
Definition
Involved in the synthesis and storage of fuel. Example; insulin.
Term
Anaerobic
Definition
A classification of bacteria. Live in environments in which free oxygen is absent.
Term
Anal canal
Definition
The third segment of the large intestine. Feces is propelled through it during defecation.
Term
Anaphylactic shock
Definition

aka Allergic reaction

Caused by insect stings (bees, wasps, hornets, yellow jackets, fire ants), medicines (penicillin, tetracycline), or foods (eggs, seafood, nuts, grains). Occurs within minutes of exposure to allergens. Mast cells throughout the body react, causing widening of blood vessels and blood pooling in capillaries, resulting in dizziness, nausea, diarrhea, unconsciousness, and sometimes death.

Term
Andrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Definition

aka Corticotropin

A tropic hormone. Stimulates synthesis and release of glucocorticoid hormones from the adrenal cortex.

Term
Androgen
Definition
A gonadocorticoid secreted by the testis and adrenal cortex. Lipid-soluble. Develop male secondary sex characteristics. Includes testosterone.
Term
Anemia
Definition
A disorder of the circulatory system. Blood has a reduced ability to carry oxygen. Too little hemoglobin or too few red blood cells. Fatigue, headache, dizziness, paleness, breathlessness, and increased heart rate to compensate for low oxygen in the blood, which can cause heart palpitations. Includes iron-deficiency anemia, hemolytic anemia, pernicious anemia, and lead poisoning.
Term
Aneurysm
Definition
Blood pressure causes a weakened artery wall to expand outwards. Most do not cause symptoms, but there is risk of it bursting, causing blood deprivation in the area, which can be fatal. May form an embolus, which can be fatal. Treated with surgery.
Term
Anger
Definition

"Why me?"

The second stage of death. Anger at the prospect of dying. May be directed at loved ones and caregivers.

Term
Angina pectoris
Definition

"Strangle"

A suffocation, vise-like, choking sensation that occurs during physical exertion or emotional stress. Caused by ischemia. The muscles of hte heart have an oxygen shortage. Treated with surgery or vasodilators such as nitroglycerin, or beta blockers.

Term
Angiography
Definition

"Cardic catheterization"

A catheter is threaded through blocked heart arteries and releases X-ray visible dye. Used to diagnose heart diseases.

Term
Angioplasty
Definition
A surgery that treats coronary artery disease. The plaque-lined section of the coronary artery is widened with a balloon that is inserted with a catheter and inflated in the right spot, pushing plaque against the wall. A stent prevents the artery from collapsing.
Term
Antagonistic
Definition
A hormone interaction. The effect of one hormone is the opposite of another. Example: glucagon and insulin.
Term
Anterior lobe
Definition
The larger lobe of the pituitary gland. Connected to th ehypothalamus by the circulatory system. Secretions are controlle dby releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus. Secretes GH, PRL, TSH, ACTH, FSH, and LH.
Term
Antibody
Definition

aka Immunoglobulin (Ig)

A Y-shaped protein that recognizes and binds to two of a specific antigen, based on shape. Includes IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IfE antigesns. Act by precipitation, lysis, attraction of phagocytes, and neutralization (PLAN).

Term
Antibody-mediated immune response
Definition
Humoral-mediated immunity. A line of defense in immune response. Defends against antigens that travel freely in fluid; toxins, bacteria, viruses. Naive B cells from plasma cells and memory B cells. Plasma cells release antibodies.
Term
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Definition

aka Vasopressin

A hormone secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Constricts blood vessels adn raises blood pressure in times of severe blood loss. Conserves body water by causing kidneys to remove water from urine and return t to the blood. Alcohol decreases its secretion, causing more urine to be produced. The dehydration that follows is a hangover. An ADH deficiency causes diabetes insipidus.

Term
Antigen
Definition
A foreign molecule that is recognized as a "foe" and is attacked by the immune system. Usually a large molecule such as a protein, polysaccharide, or nucleic acid. Often on the surface of an invasive organism.
Term
Antigen-presenting cell (APC)
Definition
Cells that take up pieces of antigens while digesting pathogens, incorporates them into the MHC marker, and presents them to helper T cells. Includes macrophages and dendritic cells.
Term
Anus
Definition
The terminal outlet of the GI tract.
Term
Aorta
Definition
The main artery of the body. Delivers blood to all body tissues. Receives blood from the left ventricle through the aortic semilunar valve. Arches over the top of the heart and gives rise to smaller arteries that flow to all arteries.
Term
Aortic semilunar valve
Definition
The semilunar valve which prevents backflow from the aorta into the left ventricle. Prone to stenosis.
Term
Apparent death
Definition
Cessation of vital physiological functions, particularly the hearbeat in breathing. However, recovery is still possible.
Term
Appendicitis
Definition
Inflammation of the appendix. Caused by infection of the appendix after it becomes blocked. Bacteria in the appendix multiply, causing infection. Bloating, indigestion, pain in the navel region, fever, nausea, and vomiting. Treated with antibiotics and surgical remoal of the appendix. If untreated the appendix could rupture, causing peritonitis.
Term
Appendix
Definition
A dead-end extension of the cecum. Has no digestive function. May play a role in the immune system.
Term
Areola
Definition
A part of the breast. A pink or brown pigmented area surrounding the nipple.
Term
Arrhythmia
Definition
Irregular heartbeat. Miscommunication in the heart. Young people may have it, but it is more pronounced in older people. Can accumulate into fibrillation. Includes tachycardia and bradycardia.
Term
Arteriole
Definition
Narrower arteries. Have smooth muscle and a thinner outer layer. Lead to capillaries. Regulate blood flow and pressure through vasoconstriction and vasodilation of precapillary sphincters.
Term
Artery
Definition
Blood vessels that bring blood from the heart to capillaries. Drawn in red. Higher pressure and thicker walls than veins. Blood is oxygenated, except for in pulmonary arteries. Give rise to arterioles. Elastic fibres allow arteries to tolerate pulses. Effected by aneurysms and atherosclerosis.
Term
Artifical heart valve
Definition
Replace heart valves damaged by stenosis. Last for over 20 years. Could form clots; consistent anticoagulant therapy is necessary. Could get stuck. Vulnerable to backflow and regurgitation. Include ball & cage, tilt-disc, and leaflet designs.
Term
Artificial pacemaker
Definition
Implanted below the skin. Sends electrical stimulus to the heart when needed. Prevents ventricular fibrillation.
Term
Ascending colon
Definition
The first segment of the colon.
Term
Aspirin
Definition
A drug that inhibits the function of platelet-attracting chemicals, thus hampering blood clotting. Can treat atherosclerosis. Treats pain by counter-acting chemicals produced by damaged tissues.
Term
Asthma attack
Definition
An allergic reaction. Caused by pollen, mold spores, and animal dander. Mast cells in the airways of the lower respiratory tract react, causing difficulty breathing.
Term
Atherectomy
Definition
A surgery that treats atherosclerosis. A catheter is snaked up an artery and used to hack away at the fatty buildup. Not as effective as an angioplasty.
Term
Atheroma
Definition
Build-up of fatty plaque on artery walls. Can lead to atherosclerosis.
Term
Atherosclerosis
Definition

"Yellow hardening"

A cardiovascular disease. A build-up of calcified fatty substances in the walls of arteries. The artery is narrower. A damaged artery begins to collect LDLs, which cause an inflammatory response in the artery, which leads to thickening of artery muscle layer. A layer of fatty plaque forms in the lumen. If it ruptures, a thrombus could occur that could trigger a heart attack or stroke, which could be fatal. Can cause ischemia and angina pectoris. Symptoms different in men and women. Treated with healthy lifestyle and diet, drugs that lwoer blood pressure, cholesterol, or blood clotting agents, such as Aspirin. Nitroglycerin (dilates veins), calcum channel blockers, and beta blockers.

Term
ATP
Definition

Adenosine triphosphate

A molecule with utilizable chemical energy. Transfers energy for all cellular functions in the body in coupled reactions. It is not storesd. About 60% of energy is lost to heat. Astrocytes and neurons release ATP, influencing sleep. 

Term
Atrial systole
Definition
The first stage in systole in cardiac cycle. Both atria contract, forcing blood into the ventricles. Signaled by the SA node.
Term
Atrioentricular bundle
Definition

aka Bundle of His

A series of muscle fibres on the septum, which divides to the left and right sides of the heart and branches into Purkinje fibres. Carries the signal sent from the AV node and SA node.

Term
Atrioventricular (AV) node
Definition
A cluster of specialized cardiac muscle cells in the right atrium on the septum. Receives a signal from the SA node. Sends the signal along the atrioventricular bundle and Purkinje fibres.
Term
Atrioventricular (AV) valves
Definition
Valves that prevent backflow from a ventricle into an atrium. Includes the tricuspid and mitral valves. Cusps are attached to the walls of the ventricle via chordae tendinae. When they close it makes the "lub" sound in a heartbeat.
Term
Atrium
Definition
The upper chambers of the heart. There are two; the left and right. Smaller than ventricles, and with thinner walls. The AV valves lead from atria to ventricles.
Term
Attraction of phagocytes
Definition
The A in PLAN. A way that antiboies defend against antigens. Phagocytes are attracted to the area and engulf and destroy foreign material.
Term
Aura
Definition
Visual disturbances such as blind spots, zigzag line, flashing lights. Auditory hallucinations. Numbness. A sign of the onset of a migraine headache.
Term
Autoimmune disorder
Definition
When the immune system fails to distinguish between self and non-self and attacks tissues/organs in the body. Includes rheumatic fever, and organ-specific and organ-non-specific autoimmune disorder.
Term
Autonimc nervous system (ANS)
Definition
The portion of the CNS that regulates body functions and is not consciously controlled. Consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Uses information about inner conditions from the somatic nervous system to involuntarily maintain homeostasis. Alters digestive activity, open/closes blood vessels, and alters heart rate and breath rate.
Term
Autotrophic
Definition
A classification of bacteria. Manufacture their own food. Most use energy from sunlight.
Term
B cells
Definition

aka B lymphocytes

Lymphocytes that mature in the bone marrow. Antigen-presenting cells. Activated by helper T cells. Invovled in antibody-mediated immune response. Includes naive B cells, plasma cells, and memory B cells.

Term
Bacilli
Definition
A classification of bacteria. Rod-shaped. The most numerous type of bacteria.
Term
Back dominant pain
Definition
A type of low back pain. Releif by stretching. Comes in spasms. There is no nerve damage.
Term
Background distressors
Definition
Environmental stressors such as heat, humidity, or noise, that result in GAS even though we may be unaware of it. Living in constant background distressors can resut in stress-related desorders.
Term
Bacteria
Definition
Single celled organisms. Have one piece of DNA. Consume nutrients from the environment. There are ten times more bacterial cells than human cells on a normal human being: only 1% of DNA in our body mass is human DNA. The cover us, digest foods, produce vitamins, and train the immune system. Can cause diseases including lyme disease, toxic shock, food poisoning, ulcers, and cholera. Communicate using quorum sensing. Can be heterotrophic or autotrophic. Can be aerobic or anaerobic. Reproduce by binary fission, budding, or conjugation. Either gram-positive or gram-negative. Classified by shape into bacilli, cocci, and spirilla.
Term
Bacteriodetes
Definition
A commensal bacteria species present in lean people.
Term
Balance control
Definition
The brain integrates sense of body position via visual, vetsibular, and somato sensors, and corrects body position to balance, making standing possible.
Term
Bargaining
Definition

"If I am allowed to live, I promise ..."

The third stage of dying. Resolves to be a better person in return for extension of life.

Term
Basophils
Definition
A granulocyte. Resleases histamine, triggered by IgEs, attracting other white blood cells to the area of inflammation, and widens blood vessels. Plays a role in allergic reactions. Bi-lobed nucleus. Large, purple-staining granules in the cytoplasm. 20 - 50 cells per mm3 of blood. Last 3 - 72 hours.
Term
Benign tumour
Definition
A non-cancerous tumour.
Term
Bereavement
Definition
The loss or deprivation experienced when a loved one dies.
Term
Beta-2 agonist
Definition
A drug prohibited at all times in sports competitions.
Term
Beta blockers
Definition
Drugs that treat coronary heart disease. Controls the reactivity of the heart.
Term
Beta cells
Definition
Cells in the pancreas that secrete insulin.
Term
Bicarbonate
Definition
Produced by the pancreas and small intestine. Released into the small intestine. A buffer that counteracts the acidity of chyme.
Term
Bile
Definition
Produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Emulsifis fats into small droplets, increasing surface area for lipase to work. Contains water, ions, cholesterol, bile pigmets, and bile salts.
Term
Bilirubin
Definition
The broken down form of hemoglobin, produced in the liver from worn-out red blood cells. It is released in bile. Colours feces. If the liver is unable to filter it from the blood, it can cause jaundice.
Term
Binary fission
Definition
A method of bacterial reproduction. Adult bacteria split apart to form two new bacteria.
Term
Biological age
Definition
The relative age or condition of a person's organs and body systems.
Term
Biological valves
Definition
Replace heart valves damaged by stenosis. Usually pig heart valves. A form of xenotransplantation. Requires immunosuppression therapy.
Term
Biopsy
Definition
A microscopic examination of tumour tissue to determine if cancer is present.
Term
Bitter
Definition
A taste caused by quinine.
Term
Bladder
Definition
One of the body's first lines of defense against pathogens. Acidic urine washes microbes from the urethra.
Term
Blood
Definition
A fluid of the lymphatic system. Provides transportation, protection, and regulation. A connective tissue. Formed elements including platelets, white blood cells, and red blood cells, are suspended in plasma.
Term
Blood clotting
Definition
There are 30 steps of blood clotting. In the event of damage to a blood vessel, injured cells and platelets release clotting factors which activate prothrombin activator, which turns prothrombin into thrombin, which turns fibrinogen into fibrin. Fibrin makes a web that traps blood cells and forms a clot that prevents from further blood loss.
Term
Blood donation
Definition
Eligible if at least 17 years old, and 110 lbs. Takes 10 to 20 minutes.
Term
Blood loss
Definition
A disorder of the circulatory system.
Term
Blood pressure
Definition
The force exerted by blood against the walls of blood vessels. Should be high enough to move blood through the body, but not so high that it stresses the blood vessels and heart. Factors affecting blood pressure include age, time of day, physical activty, stress, and lifestyle. Measured by a sphygmomanometer. There is systolic pressure and diastolic pressure.
Term
Blood types
Definition
Presence or absence of marker proteins on blood cells. The body produces antibodies that attack blood cells carrying non-matching marker proteins, makking agglutinates. Includes ABO blood types and Rh factor blood types.
Term
Blood vessel
Definition
A vessel of the cardiovascular system. Arteries, capillaries, and veins. The inner layer is squamous epithelium. The middle layer is smooth muscle and elastic fibres. The outer layer is connective tissue. Has a hollow lumen. High velocity vessels have low surface area for direct, rapid conductance of blood. Low velocity vessels have large surface area for optimal materials exchange.
Term
Blue Zone
Definition
Areas of the world with high numbers of older people. Nicoya, Costa Rica. Ikaria, Greece.
Term
Bolus
Definition
An easily swallowed lump of food formed by the tongue, teeth, and saliva in the mouth. It is pushed towards the pharynx and swallowed.
Term
Bone marrow
Definition
A stem cell pool of the lymphatic system.
Term
Bone marrow transplatn
Definition
A cure for leukemia. A close match for bone marrow must be found, such as a family relative. Existing bone marrow is killed with radiation and/or drugs, and the donor's bone marrow is injected into the blood and finds its way into the bones. Transplants with stem cells from umbilical cords can be successful.
Term
Bradycardia
Definition
A form of arrhythmia. An abnormally slow heartbeat.
Term
Brain
Definition
Its parenchymal cells are neurons. Uses large amounts of glucose. Does not store any primary fuels. Astrocytes control nutrient flow to neurons and can make glycogen, ketone bodies, and lactate if needed. Has two cerebral hemispheres. Controls voluntary movement, and regulates cognitive funtions including thinking, learning, speaking, memory, and decision making.
Term
Brain death
Definition
Cessation of brain function. Loss of all reflexes and electrical activity of the brain. Irreversible coma. Confirmed using an electroencephalogram.
Term
Brain stem
Definition
Part of the brain. Sits at the base of the brain. Connects the spinal cord to the rest of the brain. Controls functions that happen automatically; heart rate, blood pressure, breathing.
Term
Breast
Definition
Consists of milk glands, ducts that lead to the nipple, the nipple, areola, and connective tissue. Development begins in the sixth week of fetal life. Initially develops in the milk ridge. Female breasts begin to grow at puberty at age 10 or 11. Fat and fibrous breast tissue becomes more elastic.
Term
Breast cancer
Definition
Cancer occurring in the breast.
Term
Breastfeeding
Definition
The infant stimulates nerve receptors in the nipples. Nerve impulses travel to the hypothalamus, which signals the posterior pituitary gland to release oxytocin, which travels through the blood to the mammary glands. Milk is then ejected from the mammary glands.
Term
Brown adipose tissue (BAT)
Definition
Energy-dissipating. Responsible for adaptive thermogenesis in cold.
Term
Bruise
Definition
After an injury, tiny blood vessels are blocked and blood becomes deoxygenized and turns a dark colour. As red blood cells regenerate, the area turns yellow.
Term
Brunner's glands
Definition
Glands in the small intestine which produce bicarbonate ions.
Term
Brush border
Definition
A fuzzy surface on the mucosa layer of the small intestine formed by villi and microvillia. Increases surface area for absorption.
Term
Budding
Definition
A method of reproduction in bacteria. A small outgrowth on a parent bacteria develops into a new bacteria.
Term
Building specific defences
Definition
The fifth step in the immune response. Clonal selection. Naive B cells form plasma cells and memory B cells. Naive cytotonic T cells divide, forming memory cytotoxic T cells and effector cytotoxic T cells.
Term
Burnout
Definition
A source of stress. Physical and mental exhaustion as a result of continuous overload. People with demanding jobs often have burnout.
Term
Caffeine
Definition
An antagonist at cell-surface adenosine receptors. An inhibitor of cycllic AMP phosphodiesterase. Readily crosses the blood-brain barrier.
Term
Calcitonin (CT)
Definition
A hormone secreted by the parafollicular cells in the thyroid gland. Decreases blood levels of calcium and phosphate. When blood calcium levels are too high, it stimulates absorption of calcium by bones and inhibits osteoclasts. Stimulates initial increase in the excretion of calcium in the urine. Works in a negative feedback loop with PTH to maintain calcium homeostasis.
Term
Calcium
Definition
Binds to troponin, leading to changes in muscle proteins, causing muscle contractions. Causes the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, making it critical for nerve impulses. Blood calcium is maintained in a negative feedback loop by CT and PTH.
Term
Calcium deficiency
Definition
Caused by low calcium in the diet or by damage to the parathyroid glands. Muscle spasms, nervousness, and irritability. In severe cases, the larynx may become paralyzed and the person may die from suffoction. Treated with calcium supplements.
Term
Calcium excess
Definition
Caused by a tumour in the parathyroid glands, causing excess PTH secretion. Calcium is pulled from bone tissue, causing increased blood calcium and weakened bones. May lead to kidney stones, calcium deposits in soft tissue, and decreased nervous system activity.
Term
Cancer
Definition
A large group of diseases. A malfunction of the immune system. Uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells. Risks include lifestyle, smoking, obesity, biological factors, occupation, environmental factors, social factors, psychological factors, chemicals in foods, infectious diseases, HBV and HCV (liver cancer), HPV (cervical cancer), and medical factors. Includes carcinoma, sarcom, lymphoma, and leukemia.
Term
Cancer cells
Definition
A body cell that has had its genes altered and can no longer regulate cell division. If unstopped, they may multiply until they take over the body, upsetting homeostasis, choking pathways, and causing pain and death. They occur regularily in the body, but are destroyed by NK cells.
Term
Canines
Definition
Teeth that tear food. There are four.
Term
Cannabinoids
Definition
A drug banned in-competition during sporting competitions.
Term
Capillary
Definition
A microscopic blood vessel between arterioles and venules. The site of nutrient, waste, and fluid exchange at a local level. Red blood cells pass through in single file. Walls are one capillary cell thick; substances pass through and around theses cells. Form capillary beds.
Term
Capillary bed
Definition
Networks of 10 - 100 capillaries. Arterioles leading to capillary beds have precapillary sphincters. Blood leaves capillary beds by osmotic pressure. Capillary beds are close to every cell in the body. Surface area is enormous. Blood moves very slowly through them, increasing time for exchange of materials.
Term
Capillary cells
Definition
Teh cells in the walls of capillaries. The walls are one cell thick. Substances pass through and around these cells.
Term
Carbohydrate storage
Definition
Glucose is stored in the form of glycogen in the liver and muscles. Quickly and easily metabolized for use in a wide range of cell types. Requires hydrated storage; bulky and low energy density. 1% of stored energy.
Term
Carbon dioxide
Definition
A waste produced by all cells. Binds to hemoglobin at a site other than the heme ring. Most carbon dioxide is taken from cells dissolved in the plasma.
Term
Carbon monoxide
Definition
A product of incomplete combustion. An odourles, tasteless gas. Hemoglobin binds to it 200 times more readily than oxygen. Once carbon monoxide is bound, hemoglobin cannot bind to oxygen. Deadly.
Term
Carboxypeptidase
Definition
An enzyme produced by the pancreas. Digests polypeptides into amino acids.
Term
Carcinogen
Definition
A cancer-causing agent.
Term
Carcinoma
Definition
Cancer of epithelial tissues. Breast, lung, intestine, skin, and mouth cancer. Metastasizes through the circulatory and lymphatic systems. Forms solid tumours.
Term
Cardiac cycle
Definition
Repeated systole and diastole.
Term
Cardiomyocyte
Definition
The parenchymal cells of the heart.
Term
Cardiovascular
Definition
Pertaining to the heart and blood vessels.
Term
Cardiovascular disease (CVD)
Definition
The single biggest killer in the US. Kills more men than women because estrogen protects against it. A class of diseases of the heart and blood vessels. Includes atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, stroke, hypertension, arrhythmia, congestive heart failure, congenital heart disease, and rheumatic heart disease. Risks are genetic, hypertension, high blood fat, physical inactivity, stress, obesity, and diabetes. Men, and individuals of African, South Asian, or First Nations descent are at higher risk.
Term
Cardiovascular system
Definition
The heart pumps blood through a system of blood vessels, delivering blood to the whole body. The body has 6 L of blood. Kidneys filter blood and control volume, pressure, and oxygen carrying capacity. There is an hierarchy of organs which get the freshest blood: brain > heart muscle > GI tract & liver > kidneys > skeletal muscle > skin > skeleton, fat & other tissues. Heart rate, diameter of blood vessels, and composition of blood are tailored to the body's changing needs, sustaining life.
Term
Carotid arteries
Definition
Arteries that deliver blood to the head and brain.
Term
Cartilage
Definition
A smooth and spongy material that covers the bones of joints. Composed of chondrocytes, matrix, proteoglycans, adhesives, and collagen.
Term
Cataolic hormone
Definition
Involved in the breakdown and use of fuel.
Term
Cataracts
Definition
Clouding of the lens of the eye that interrupts the focusing of light on the retina, resulting in blurred vision or eventual blindess.
Term
Catecholamine
Definition
Stress hormones that regulate blood sugar. Stimulate glucose production in the liver and promoting lipolysis. Include epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Term
Cecum
Definition
A dead-end pouch at the junction of the small and large intestine. The appendix is attached to it
Term
Cell death
Definition
Gradual death of cells of the body. Timing depends on the tissue.
Term
Cell-mediated immune response
Definition
A line of defense in the immune response. Protects against cellular pathogens, cells infected by viruses, and cancer cells. Naive cytotoxic T cells produce memory cytotoxic T cells and effector cytotoxic T cells. Effector cytotoxic T cells destroy the cellular pathogens by releasing perforins.
Term
Cementum
Definition
Connective tissue which holds the root of teeth in the gums.
Term
Central clock
Definition
Clocks in the brain. Set by zeitgebers. Information is then sent to peripheral clocks.
Term
Cephalic phase
Definition
Chemical and mechanical digestion begins in the mouth. Mastication and salivary secretion. Under autonomic control. Food is softened and lubricated. Amylase and some lipase is added.
Term
Cerebellum
Definition
Sits above the brain stem and beneath the occipital lobe. Plays a role in balance, co-ordination, and learning motor skills. Has two hemispheres.
Term
Cerebral hemispheres
Definition
Have an outer cerebral cortex where sensory information is processed. The hemispheres each have four lobes: frontal, prietal, occipital, and temporal.
Term
Cerebrospinal fluid
Definition
A fluid of the lymphatic system. Found in the brain and spine. Does not form clots. Has some white blood cells in it. Different protein composition than lymph.
Term
Cerebrospinal fluid vessel
Definition
A vessel of the lymphatic system. Cerebrospinal fluid drains into the circulatory and lymphatic system at various points outside of the brain. Effected by hydrocephalus.
Term
Challenges
Definition
Deviations outside of the predictive range of a variable in allostasis.
Term
Chemical digestion
Definition
Breaking of chemical bonds in complex molecules in food, creating smaller subunits that can be absorbed in the bloodstream. Enzymes in saliva, gastric juice, and secretions of the liver, pancreas, and small intestine.
Term
Chemical surface barriers
Definition
Part of the body's first line of defence against pathogens.
Term
Chemoreceptor
Definition
A type of sensory receptor. Detect chemicals. Includes gustation and olfaction. Monitor levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and glucose in body fluis.
Term
Chocolate
Definition
The "love drug". Cocoa polyphenols of the cocoa bean have anti-inflammatory activity. Lowers hemoglobin A1c (HBA1c) in the blood.
Term
Cholecystokinin
Definition
A hormone released by the small intestine triggered by chyme in the small intestine. Triggers release of enzymes from the pancreas and contraction of the gallblader, releasing bile.
Term
Chondrocytes
Definition
A component of cartilage. Control matrix turnover through the production of collagen, proteoglycans, and enzymes for cartilage metabolisms.
Term
Chodrae tendineae
Definition

aka Heart strings

Connect the cusps of the AV valves to the walls of the ventricles. Prevents the cusps from flapping back into the atria.

Term
Chronic constipation
Definition
A disorder of motility in the GI tract.
Term
Chronic LBP
Definition
Low back pain that lasts over 12 weeks.
Term
Chylomicron complex
Definition
Micelles of fat that enter the small intestine where they form triglycerides and combine with cholesterol, phospholipids, and protein, forming chylomicron complexes which are water-soluble. They enter into lacteals.
Term
Chyme
Definition
Food mixed with gastric juice. Produced in the stomach. Acidic.
Term
Chymotripsin
Definition
A digestive enyme produced in the pancreas. Digests proteins and polypeptides into smaller fragments.
Term
Circular layer
Definition
A layer of smooth muscle in the muscularis layer of the GI tract. Arranged in rings. Causes constriction of the GI tract when contracted.
Term
Circulatory system
Definition
The cardiovascular system, lymphatic system, and cerebrospinal fluids. Fluids are blood, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, and extracellular fluid.
Term
Cirrhosis
Definition
The liver becomes fatty and deteriorates and is replaced with scar tissue.
Term
Clonal selection
Definition
Production of specialized clones. Occurs during the building specific defense step of the immune response.
Term
Coagulation disorder
Definition
A disorder of the circulatory system. Platelets and clotting factors are affected.
Term
Cocci
Definition
A classification of bacteria. Spherical bacteria. Include diplococci (occur in pairs), staphylococci (occur in clusters), and streptococci (occur in chains).
Term
Cognitive stress system
Definition
Psychological system that governs emotional response to stress. Recognizes and assesses stressors based on self-concept, past experiences, and emotions. Emotions we feel are closely related to memory storage neurons. Makes decisions about how to best cope with stresses.
Term
Collagen
Definition
A component of cartilage. Mostly type II collagen in hyalie collagen. Forms a cartilaginous framework to provide tensile strength. Collagen ad proteoglycans interweave to form cartilage.
Term
Collateral circulation
Definition
When a bypass naturally forms around a block in the coronary artery without medical intervention.
Term
Colon
Definition
The first segmet of the large intestine. Absorbs 90% of water and some sodium and potassium ions. Has three segments: the ascending, transverse, and descending colon. Turns chyme into feces. Houses about 50 species of commesal bacteria.
Term
Colonoscopy
Definition
A fibre-optic tube is snaked down the entre colon and screened for polyps.
Term
Colorectal cancer
Definition
The second most deadly type of cancer. Early detection and treatment reduces chaces of death. A polyp forms and becomes cancerous. This can take up to 10 years. Polyps are detected by sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy.
Term
Coma
Definition
Unresponsive to all sensory input and cannot be awakened. Caused by damage to regions of the brain responsible for stimulating the cerebrum: reticular activating system or thalamus, by head injury, tumour, infection, drug overdose, or failure of the liver or kidney.
Term
Combustion
Definition
Fuel + O2 → CO2 + H2O + Heat
Term
Commensal bacteria
Definition

"Good bacteria"

Live in the mucous layer of the colon, close to epithelial cells. About 50 species of beneficial bacteria, including E. coli. Eat undigested food and materials we are unable to digest, making up to 15% of the energy we absorb (as volatile fatty acids). Release gasses causing flatulence, produce vitamin K and some B vitamins which can be absorbed.

Term
Common bile duct
Definition
Conects the gallbladder to the small intestine.
Term
Common cold
Definition
Stress puts you at increased risk for colds, even when controlling for smoking, alcohol use, personality traits, self-esteem, introversion/extroversion, and mood.
Term
Comorbidity
Definition
Presence of a number of diseases at the same time.
Term
Complement system
Definition
A group of at least 20 different defensive proteins. Circulate the body in an inactive form. Activated by infections. Has non-specific and specific mechanisms. Destroys pathogens by making pores in cells causing them to burst. Attracts macrophages and neutrophils and gives them a better "grip" on the pathogen. Causes inflammation.
Term
Complex systems
Definition
The whole is bigger that the sum of its parts. Exists at all levels of natural organizatio. Functions emerge that are not properties of any of the parts. An interplay between order and chaos. Include networks, cells, organisms.
Term
Conflict
Definition
A source of stress. Simultaneous existence of incompatible demads, opportunities, needs, or goals. Behaviours that are incongruent with pressures.
Term
Congenital heart disease
Definition
Cardiovascular disease that is present at birth. Heart murmurs due to valve irregularities. Some must be corrected surgically. Caused by hereditary diseases such as rubella, or alcohol intake during pregnancy.
Term
Congestive heart failure
Definition
A type of cardiovascular disease. When a heart attack or diseases renders the heart unable to continue pumping blood to the lungs and body at an adequate rate. Shortness of breath, fatigue, weakess, fluid accumulation in lungs and limbs. Treated with drugs such as digitalis, diuretics, or vasodilators.
Term
Conjucation
Definition

aka Sexual reproduction

A method of reproduction in bacteria. Two bacteria unite to form a zygote that splits into new bacteria.

Term
Constipation
Definition
When feces is too hard. Too much water is absorbed by the colon. Causes difficult defecation, and straining of the veins in the anus, rectum, and iner wall of the colon. Could cause a diverticula.
Term
Continued surveillance
Definition
The seventh step in the immune response. Memory cells remain behind. In the event of a reinfection, secondary response is faster and more efficent.
Term
Cool reactors
Definition
People who are less sensitive to stressors and may react less intensely than most people.
Term
Coronary angiography
Definition
A procedure used to spot areas in the coronar arteries narrowed by coronary artery disease. A catheter is inserted into the artery of an arm or leg and snaked into the heart, where a dye visible by X-rays is released, and blood flow through the heart is monitored.
Term
Coronary artery
Definition
Arteries that deliver blood to the heart muscles. The first two arteries to branch off of the aorta. Branched, giving rich blood supply to the heart. Part of coronary circulation.
Term
Coronary artery disease
Definition
Atherosclerosis fatty deposits form in the coronary arteries. Cause most major heart attacks. Temporary oxygen shortages in the heart cause angina. Detected with coronary angiography. Treated with angioplasty, coronary bypass, or angina treatments.
Term
Coronary artery spasm
Definition
A temporary blockage of the coronary artery.
Term
Coronary bypass
Definition
A surgery that treats coronar artery disease. Done if angioplasty is not possible. A segment of a leg vein is removed and grafted into the heart, providing one or more alternate pathways which bypass the obstruction between aorta and coronary artery.
Term
Coronary circulation
Definition
A network of blood vessels that nourish the muscles of the heart. Includes the coronary arteries and cardiac veins.
Term
Coronary heart disease (CHD)
Definition
A disease of the cardiovascular system that develops over time. Risks include family history, and lifestyle. Narrowing of the blood vessels that supply the heart, raising blood pressure. Stress is a contributing factor, due to the sympathetic nervous system narrowing blood vessels. Increased fatty acids in the blood could lead to atheroma. Increased clotting ability due to catecholamines could lead to thrombosis and occlusion.
Term
Coronary thrombosis
Definition
A blood clot blocking a coronary artery. Causes a heart attack. Unlikely to happen unless coronary artery dsease is present, but sometimes the clot forms elsewhere and travels to the coronary artery.
Term
Corticosterone
Definition
A glucocorticoid secreted by the adrenal cortex.
Term
Cortisol
Definition
A glucocorticoid secreted by the adrenal cortex when stimulated by ACTH during stress response. Deficiency in cortisol can cause Addison's disease. Facilitates the release of stored nutrients to meet energy demands.
Term
Cortisone
Definition
A glucocorticoid secreted by the adrenal cortex.
Term
Cranial nerves
Definition
There are 21 pairs. Arise from the brain and service specific structures of the head and certain body parts such as the heart and diaphragm. Some have only sensory fibres, some only motor fibres, and some have both.
Term
Cretinism
Definition
A condition caused by a deficiency in TH secretion during fetal development or infancy. Affects 1 in every 3000 people. Dwarfism and delayed mental and sexual development. Symptoms may not appear until after birth because in utero the mother may supply sufficient TH. Infants are tested at birth for cretinism. Treated with oral doses of TH.
Term
Crohn's disease
Definition
A type of IBD. Inflammation of the outer wall of an part of the GI tract.
Term
Crown
Definition
The portion of a tooth above the gum line. Consists of an outer layer of enamel overtop a layer of dentin overtop the pulp cavity.
Term
Cushing's syndrome
Definition
A condition caused by prolonged exposure to high levels of cortisol. Body fat is redistributed and fluid accumulates in the face. Fatigue, high blood pressure, and elevated glucose levels. May be caused by a tumour on the adrenal cortex or anterior pituitary gland (produces ACTH). Treated with radiation, drugs, or surgery. May be caused by glucocorticoid treatments for asthma, lupus, or rheumatoid arthritis.
Term
Cusps
Definition
A component of AV valves and semilunar valves. Flaps of connective tissue.
Term
Cystic fibrosis
Definition
A disease of the pancreas. A disorder of secretion into the GI tract.
Term
Cytokines
Definition
Chemicals which promote local immunity. Helper T cells amplify their signal.
Term
Death
Definition
The final cessation of vital organs and the state in which these functions are incapable of being restored.
Term
Deep vein thrombosis
Definition
A disorder of the veins. A clot forms in a vein, often in the calf. There is a tendency to become more clotted. Blood pools in the limb. Painful and life-threatening.
Term
Defecation
Definition
Expulsion of feces. The internal and external anal sphincters relax and defecation reflex propels feces through the anal canal. Voluntary contractions of the abdominal muscles may help expel feces.
Term
Defecation reflex
Definition
Muscles contract and feces is propelled through the anal canal.
Term
Defense
Definition
The sixth step in the immune response. Plasma cells release antibodies. Effector cytotoxic T cells cause cells to burst.
Term
Defensive cells
Definition
Part of the body's second line of defense against pathogens. Includes phagocytes, eosinophils, and NK cells.
Term
Defensive proteins
Definition
Part of the body's second line of defense against pathogens. Includes interferons and complements.
Term
Degenerative disk disease
Definition
The disk tears over time. Can be very painful in some people and not in others.
Term
Dehydration
Definition
A disorder of the circulatory system. The circulatory system collapses. Blood becomes thicker until it is impossible to pump and the whole system clots up.
Term
Delta cells
Definition
Cells in the pancreas that secrete somatostatin.
Term
Dementia
Definition
Mental disorientation, loss of memory, and judgement and orientation problems.
Term
Dendritic cells
Definition
A non-parenchymal defense cell of myeloid origin.
Term
Denial
Definition

"Not me, there must be a mistake"

The first stage of death. Shock and disbelief. Intellectuall accepts the situation, but emotionally rejects it. Confused and stunned.

Term
Dental cavity
Definition
Caused by acid secreted by bacteria on teeth when they digest sugars. Enamel on the crown of the tooth is eroded away. If severe, bacteria may infect the dentin and pulp. Blood vessels in the tooth may widen to fight infection, causing a toothache.
Term
Dentin
Definition
The layer in the crown of a tooth between the pulp cavity and the enamel. Hard and bone-like.
Term
Depression (mental illness)
Definition
A disease that affects the brain.
Term
Depression (stages of dying)
Definition

"I am really dying and there is nothing that can be done"

The fourth stage of dying. Usually sets in when deteriorating physical condition becomes more severe. Feeling of doom, loss, worthlessness, guilt. May feel responsible for emotional suffering of loved ones, and the seemingly futile efforts of caregivers.

Term
Descendig colon
Definition
The last segment of the colon.
Term
Detection
Definition
The second step in the immune response. Macrophgaes detect foreign cells/molecules and engulf them.
Term
Diabetes
Definition
Includes type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes. Can cause cardiovascular disease, eye disease and blindness, kidney disease, amputations, pregnancy complications, and the flu.
Term
Diabetes insipidus
Definition

"Overflow tasteless"

A condition caused by damage to the posterior pituitary gland or hypothalamus. There is a deficiency in ADH secretion. The person has excessive urine production and constant dehydration. Severe cases may result in death from dehydration. Treated with an ADH nasal spray.

Term
Diabetes mellitus
Definition

"Overflow honey"

Over 120 million people have it worldwide. A disease of the pancreas. Abnormally high level of glucose in the blood. Large amounts of glucose are lost in the urine as a result of an insulin deficiency. Increased production of urine. Increased risk for blindness, kidney damage, heart disease, high blood pressure, atherosclerosis, gum disease, nerve damage, loss of sensation, poor circulation to lower limbs. Includes type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

Term
Diabulemia
Definition
An eating disorder in diabetic people.
Term
Diarrhea
Definition
A method of the GI tract or for expelling noxious substances. When feces is too watery. Not enough water is absorbed by the colon. Can be caused by toxins from microorganisms that cause colon contrctions, or excess foods or alocoholic drink. Can lead to dehydration. A major cause of death worldwide. Especially dangerous in infants and young children.
Term
Diastole
Definition
A stage in cardiac cycle. Relaxation of the heart. Consists of early diastole and later diastole.
Term
Diastolic pressure
Definition
Blood pressure during diastole when the heart rests. The lowest blood pressure in the cardiac cycle. A healthy diastolic pressure is 70 - 80 mmHg.
Term
Digestive system
Definition
Breaks down the complex molecules in food into subunits which are absorbed into the bloodstream, providing fuel and building blocks. Consists of the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs.
Term
Digital cardiac angiography
Definition
A computer-aided imaging that records pictures of the heart and blood vessels. Used to diagnose heart disease.
Term
Digitalis
Definition
A drug that increases the strength of heart contractions. Helps prevent heart failures.
Term
Dimer
Definition
Two antibody monomers bound to each other. There are four binding sites. Inclures IgAs.
Term
Direct route
Definition
Stress produces physiological changes that directly lead to illnesses, particularly when stress is chronic. Variation in individual responses.
Term
Discrimination
Definition
A source of stress. Unfavourable actions taken against someone based on prejudices concerning race, ethnicity, religion, social status, gender, sex, sexual orientation, lifestyle, national origin, or physical characteristics.
Term
Disenfranchised grief
Definition
Grief concerning a loss that cannot be openly acknowledged, publicly mourned, or socially supported.
Term
Distress
Definition
Stress that results in negative changes.
Term
Diuretics
Definition
Drugs that decrease blood volume by increasing excretion of sodium and fluids. Treats hypertension and helps prevent heart failures.
Term
Diverticula
Definition
An outward bulging and formation of a pouch in the large intestine wall. Common in people over 50 years old. Can cause diverticulosis or diverticulitis.
Term
Diverticulitis
Definition
When a diverticula becomes infected or inflamed. Abrupt cramping and abdominal pain, change in bowel habits, fever, rectal bleeding. Treated by increasing fibre in the diet and avoiding nuts, drugs that reduce muscle spasms, and surgery.
Term
Diverticulosis
Definition
When a diverticula causes no problems or symptoms.
Term
Dorsal root
Definition
Where sensory neurons of spinal nerves enter the spinal cord on the dorsal side.
Term
Dorsal root ganglion
Definition
The cell bodies of sensory neurons of spinal nerves.
Term
Duodenum
Definition
The first section of the small intestine. Receives chyme from the stomach. Digestive juices from the pancreas and liver enter at this point.
Term
Dying
Definition
The process of decline in body function resulting in the death of an organism.
Term
Early diastole
Definition
The first stage of diastole in the cardiac cycle. Atria and ventricles passively fill with blood.
Term
Effector cells
Definition
Lymphocytes that carry out attack on invaders. Live for a few days. After the invader is destroyed they diminish. Includes plasma cells, effector helper T cells, and effector cytotoxic T cells.
Term
Effector cytotoxic T cells
Definition
Produced by naive cytotoxic T cells. Destory cellular pathogens by releasing perforins.
Term
Effector helper T cells
Definition
Produced by activated helper T cells. Activate naive B cells and naive cytotoxic T cells.
Term
Efferent nerve endings
Definition
Nonp-parenchymal cells that are included in the basic logic unit of the local support and defence system.
Term
Electrocardiogram (EGG or EKG)
Definition
A device which detects electrical impulses on the body surface, generating a graph of heart activity with three distinct waves: the P wave, QRS wave, and T wave. Used to diagnose heart disease.
Term
Elephantiasis
Definition
A condition where a parasitic worm that is transmitted by tropical mosquitoes invades the body and blocks the lymphatic fluid in the affected region. There is massive swelling, and a darkening and thickening of the skin in the area.
Term
Embolus
Definition
A blood clot floating freely in the circulatory system. May become stuck in a narrow blood vessel, causing a stroke or heart attack.
Term
Enamel
Definition
The outer coating of the crown of teeth. A non-living substance hardened with calcium salts.
Term
Encapsulated nerve ending
Definition
A type of sensory receptor. Tips of dendrites are protected by a connective tissue capsule and protects the tips of dendrites. Includes Meissner's, Pacinian, and Ruffini corpusles.
Term
Endocardium
Definition
The inner lining of the heart cavities. A smooth surface that reduces friction.
Term
Endocrine gland
Definition
Release hormones which diffuse into the bloodstream. Lack ducts. Secretion is stimulted by the autonomic nervous system.
Term
Endocrine system
Definition
Includes endocrine glands and endocrine tissues. Co-ordinates body systems to maintain homeostasis. Slower and longer-lasting effects than the nervous system. Regulatess growth, development, and reproduction.
Term
Endocrine tissue
Definition
Organs that serve other purposes but have some cells which produce hormones.
Term
Endorphin
Definition
A hormone that relieves pain. Released during stress response.
Term
Energy distribution system
Definition
A loose network of cells. Ensures that primary fuel is available, but not over-available to all cells as needed.
Term
Enteric nervous system
Definition

The "second brain"

The nervous system of the GI tract. Has astrocyte-like glial cells that communicate with neurons. Consists of the submucosal plexus and myenteric plexus. Reponds to stimulus in the lumen of the digestive tract, emotional stress, and the sight, taste, or smell of food. Controls release of saliva, gastric juices, and enzymes.

Term
Enterocyte
Definition
The parenchymal cells of the small intestine.
Term
Environment
Definition
An input to health. Elevated temperature and air pollution are associated with decreased physiological complexity.
Term
Eosinophil
Definition
A defensive cell. A granulocyte. Consume antibody-antigen complexes by phagocytosis. Attacks pathogens too large to be consumed by phagocytosis, such as parasitic worms, by discharging enzymes. Macrophages then remove the debris. Bi-lobed nucleus. Large, pink-staining granules in the cytoplasm. 100 - 400 cells per mm3 of blood. Last 8 - 12 days.
Term
Epiglottis
Definition
A cartilaginous flap that is pushed up by the larynx during swallowing. Prevents food from entering the respiratory system.
Term
Epinephrine
Definition

aka Adrenaline

A catecholamine. Secreted by the adrenal medulla, stimulated by the hypothalamus. Lipid-soluble. Causes flight-or-fight response to stress. More blood is pumped to the heart, alveoli dilate, breathing rate increases, liver releases glucose, pupils dilate. Can cause nausea, cramping, and dry mouth.

Term
Erythroblast
Definition
Originate from stem cells. Mature into red blood cells. Take 6 days to mature in red bone marrow. They fill with hemoglobin, then the nucleus is pushed out, then the cell undergoes structural metamorphosis into a biconcave shape.
Term
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Definition
A hormone produced int he kidneys when oxygen delivery is too low. Triggers the production of red blood cells. Can increase production up to 20 million per second. When oxygen levels are restored, erythropoietin stops. Occurs when there is an imbalance between red blood cell death rate and production rate, such as blood loss. There are EPO receptors all throughout the body. Erythropoietin is illegal to use before athletic competitions.
Term
Escheri coli
Definition

E. coli.

A species of bacteria that live in the colon.

Term
Esophagus
Definition
A portion of the GI tract. The tube that moves food from the pharynx to the stomach. Has peristalsis.
Term
Essential hypertension
Definition
Hypertension that cannot be attributed to any specific cuse. 90% of hypertension cases.
Term
Estrogen
Definition
A gonadocorticoid secreted by the ovaries of premenopausal women, and the adrenal cortex. Lipid-soluble. Deelops female secondary sex characteristics.
Term
Eustress
Definition
Stress that results in positive changes.
Term
Exercise
Definition
Requires an increase in ATP in muscles. Blood glucose decreases, and glucagon stimulates production of glucose in the liver. Catecholamines decrease insulin production, mobilizes energy stores, especially fatty acids from adipose tissues, and promotes glucose production in the liver. Muscle cells release calcium that stimulates the breakdown of triglycerides and glucose for ATP synthesis. Continued exercise causes gluconeogenesis in the liver. Body temperature raises at first, but after continued exercise lowers to a temperature just above resting set point.
Term
Exhaustion
Definition
The third stage of GAS. Adaptation energ stores are depleted, the body replenishes then returns to homeostatic state. Short-term stresses would not reach this stage; energy is not depleted. Chronic stressors may create continuous GAS cycles resulting in burnout and serious illness.
Term
Exocrine pancreas insufficiency
Definition
A disease of the pancreas.
Term
Exophthalmos
Definition
Protruding eyes caused by swelling of tissue around the eye orbits. A symptom of Grave's disease.
Term
External anal sphincter
Definition
A sphincter that separates the large intestine and anus. Voluntary control by the somatic nervous system.
Term
External receptors
Definition
Sensory receptors near the outside of the body. Sense the external environment. We are conscious of these stimuli.
Term
Extracellular fluid
Definition
A fluid of the lymphatic system. It is impossible to collect extracellular fluid. We can only estimate its composition. It is probably similar to blood plasma.
Term
F cells
Definition
Cells in the pancreas that secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
Term
Fasting
Definition
No external energy input. Body mobilizes and conserves energy stores. Insulin decreases, decreasing removal of glucose, increasing hepatic glucose production, and allowing fat mobilization. In an extended fast the body relies on fat and protein as an energy source; carbohydrates are protected. Leptin production decreases, stimulating appetite and decreasing metabolic rate. Thyroid hormone decreases, reducign metabolic rate, minimizing protein breakdown. Blood fatty acid increases; fatty acids used as a fuel source.
Term
Fatty acids
Definition
Fats or lipids. A nutrient. Carried in the blood by albumins. Blood levels regulated between 0.2 and 2.0 mM; a wide range. The liver converts it into ketone bodies, which are more water soluble. Some cells have limited ability to use fatty acids as a fuel source; neurons, eye, brain, kidney, and immune cells.
Term
Feces
Definition
Formed in the colon. Undigested food, sloughed-off epithelial cells, water, and bacteria. Brown due to bile pigments.
Term
Femoral arteries
Definition
The arteries that deliver blood to the thighs and inner knees.
Term
Femoral veins
Definition
The veins that carry blood away from the thighs and inner knees.
Term
Fever
Definition
Part of the body's secondary line of defense. Abnormally high body temperature. Stimulated by pyrogens. The "thermostat" of the hypothalamus is turned up. The body acts as though it is too cold the person may shiver to raise body temperature. When body temperature exceeds the raised-up set point, the body acts like it is too hot; the person may sweat. Includes mild fevers and high fevers. Microbes operate less efficiently at high temperatures. Not recommended to eat during a fever, in order to starve the microbes.
Term
Fibrillation
Definition
Sporatic, quivering heartbeat. Can result in heart failure. Can be fatal if the heart is not "reset", such as by an electric shock.
Term
Fibrin
Definition
The converte form of fibrinogen. Forms webs that trap blood cells, forming a clot. Digested by plasmin.
Term
Fibrinogen
Definition
A plasma protein that is a clotting agent. Produced in the liver. Converted into fibrin by thrombin.
Term
Fibroblast
Definition
Non-parenchymal cells that are included in the basic logic unit of the local support and defense system.
Term
Fibromyalgia spectrum syndrome
Definition
Caused by reduced physiological complexity. Chronic fatigue in young adults.
Term
Fight-or-flight response
Definition
The reaction of the sympathetic nervous system to emergency situations. Heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood glucose levels rise. Blood vessels around the digestive system constrict. Blood vessels around skeletal and cardiac muscles dilate. Increased mental alertness. Stimulated by epinephrine and norepinephrine, which can take up to 30 seconds to mount.
Term
Firmicutes
Definition
Bacteria present in the colons of obese people. Promote the breakdown and absorption of fatty acids and polysaccharides.
Term
First line of defense
Definition
A nonspecific defense of the local support and defense system. Physical and chemical surface barriers. Includes tears, skin, the large intestine, saliva, the respiratory tract, stomach, bladder, and vagina.
Term
First messenger
Definition
A receptor that binds to water-soluble hormones. Activates second messenger.
Term
Flatulence
Definition
Gasses produced by bacteria living in the colon. Carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen sulfide.
Term
Fluids of the lymphatic system
Definition
Blood, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, and extracellular fluid.
Term
Follicle
Definition
Small spherical chambers in the thyroid gland. Lined with follicular cells.
Term
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Definition
A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. In women, it stimulates egg cell production and secretion of estrogen from the ovaries, and prepares the uterus for pregnancy and the breasts for milk production. In men, it stimulates maturation of sperm.
Term
Follicular cells
Definition
Cells lining the inside of follicles in the thyroid gland. Produce TH.
Term
Food allergies
Definition
An allergic reaction. Caused by chicken, eggs, fish, milk, nuts, shellfish, soybean, or wheat. Mast cells in the lining of the digestive tract react causing nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea.
Term
Formed elements
Definition
Cells and cell fragments in the blood. 45% of blood. Platelets, white blood cells, and red blood cells. Formed in the red bone marrow.
Term
Frailty syndrome
Definition
Caused by reduced physiological complexity. Common in the elderly.
Term
Free nerve endings
Definition
A type of sensory receptor. Tips of dendrites are unprotected. May wrap around a hair. Include Merkel disks.
Term
Frontal lobe
Definition
One of the lobes of the brain. In the front part of the brain. Controls executive function activities like thinking, organization, planning, problem solving, memory, attention, and movement.
Term
Frustration
Definition
A source of stress. Thwarting or inhibition of natural or desired behaviours and goals.
Term
Functional age
Definition
Ways in which people compare to others of a similar age.
Term
Functional death
Definition
Extensive and irreversible damage to the central nervous system, with respiration and circulatory function maintained by artificial means.
Term
Functional primary fuels
Definition
Cells that don't store fuels take in fuels and utilize it right away. Biosynthetic processes and combustion, harvesting energy as ATP.
Term
Gallbladder
Definition
An accessory organ. A muscular, pear-shaped sac that stores bile. Releasing bile into the duodenum through the common bile duct. Neural control triggered by presence of chyme in the small intestine, an hormonal control triggered by cholecystokinin.
Term
Gallstone
Definition
A tiny crystalline particle in bile that has had cholesterol build up around it, forming a hardened cluster. Can intermittently or continuously block bile ducts. Formation of one gallstone increases chances of formation of further gallstones.
Term
Gastric bypass surgery
Definition
Treats morbid obesity. Includes Roux-en Y procedure and the pap banding procedure. Increased PYY levels. Decreased ghrelin levels. Changes in appetite regulating hormones contribute to success.
Term
Gastric glands
Definition
Found in gastric pits. Mucous-secreting cells, pepsinogen-secreting cells, and HCl-secreting cells. Secretes gastric juices. Neural control triggered by the chewing of food. Hormonal control triggered by gastrin.
Term
Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)
Definition
An incretin.
Term
Gastric juice
Definition
HCl and pepsin. Mixes with food in the stomach to form chyme. Produced by gastric glands in gastric pits.
Term
Gastric pit
Definition
Pits in the mucosa layer of the stomach. Contain gastric glands.
Term
Gastrin
Definition
A hormone released by the stomach when it has food in it. Increases release of gastric juices.
Term
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
Definition
A disorder of motilit in the GI tract.
Term
Gastrointestinal (GI) tract
Definition
A 28 foot long tube which is the main part of the digestive tract. Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, cecum, large intestine, and anus. Has several peripheral clocks. Has motility, secretion, digestion, and absorption occurring at all times, even in the absence of food. Has a luminal surface area of 200 - 400 square meters. High variability in transit time: 30 to 80 hours from start to finish. Senses and expels noxious substances through diarrhea and vomiting. Home to a microbiome of bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes.
Term
Gastroparesis
Definition
A disorder of motility in the GI tract.
Term
General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
Definition
First recognized by Has Selye in 1936. The pattern followed by our physiological and psychological responses to stress. Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
Term
General senses
Definition
Provide information about body position and location. Detect touch, pressure, vibration, temperature, body and limb position, and pain. Arise from receptors in the skin, muscles, joints, bones, and internal organs.
Term
Genetics
Definition
An input to health. A single genetic polymorphism is associated with a decrease in physiological complexity.
Term
Gerontology
Definition
The study of individual and collective aging processes.
Term
Gestational diabetes
Definition
A type of diabetes that develops in pregnant women.
Term
Ghrelin
Definition
Released by the stomach. Stimulates appetite. In a post-prandial state its production decreases.
Term
Gigantism
Definition
A condition caused by a tumour in the anterior pituitary gland. There is abnormally high release of GH. The person has rapid growth and may reach a stature up to 8 or 9 feet tall! Life expectancy is reduced.
Term
Gingivitis
Definition

"Gum inflammation"

A major cause of tooth loss in adults. Plaque on the gum line causes gums to become inflamed and swollen. There may be bleeding, and gums no longer fit as tightly around teeth. Teeth could become loose. Could cause periodontitis.

Term
Glaucoma
Definition
Elevation of the pressure within the eyeball, leading to hardening of the eyeball, impaired vision, and possible blindness.
Term
Globins
Definition
Polypeptide subunits that comprise hemoglobin. There are four globins per hemoglobin.
Term
Globulins
Definition
A plasma protein that transports lipids and fat-soluble vitamins. Can be an antibody.
Term
Glucagon
Definition
A catabolic hormone secreted by alpha cells in the pancreas. Has a negative feedback loop with insulin to maintain blood sugar homeostasis. Increases blood glucose level, preventing hypoglycemia. Released between meals when blood sugar is low. Stimulates liver cells to convert glycogen, lactic aci, and amino acids into glucose, which is then released into the bloodstream. Stimulates adipose tissue to release fatt acids.
Term
Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1)
Definition
An incretin.
Term
Glucocorticoid
Definition
Hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex. Lipid-soluble. Secretion is stimulated by ACTH. Stimulate synthesis of glucose from fats and proteins. Stimulates adipose to break down fats and release fatty acids into the bloodstream. Inhibits uptake of glucose by muscle and fat tissues. Inhibits inflammatory respopnse by reducing flow of white blood cells to the area, and by reducing the amount of inflammatory chemicals released by other cells. Inhibits wound healing. Includes cortisol, corticosterone, and cortisone.
Term
Glucocorticosteroids
Definition
A drug banned in-competition during sporting competitions.
Term
Gluconeogenesis
Definition
Formation of glucose from something other than glycogen. Can be synthesized from glycerol, ketones, lactate, pyruvate, and alanine, which are products of fat, glucose, and protein breakdown. Used in times of energy demand such as fasting or endurance exercise.
Term
Glucose
Definition
A monosaccharide. Liver cells convert glycogen, lactic acid, and amino acids into it when stimulated by glucagon. The main fuel of most tissues. Blood glucose is tightly regulated between 3.5 and 6.0 mM by insulin, glucagon, incretins, leptin, adiponectin, inflammatory compounds, and catecholamines. Can be rapidly metabolized in aerobic and anaerobic environments Has an osmotic effect; hyperglycemia can result in increased water in the blood.
Term
GLUT4
Definition
A transport membrane that transports glucose.
Term
Glycogen
Definition
A long, branched storage polymer of glucose. 150 g in the liver, where it is broken down into glucose by phosphorylase when stimulated by glucagon. 350 g in the muscles, where it must be metabolized into lactate before releasing into the blood. Stores 2000 kcal total: depleted after several hours of activity or 1 - 2 days of fasting. Can only be stored in a hydrated form, giving it low energy density.
Term
Goblet cells
Definition
Cells that secrete mucus in the GI tract.
Term
Golgi tendon organs
Definition
A type of sensory receptor that senses limb position. Branched nerve fibres that measure the degree of muscle tension.
Term
Gonadocorticoids
Definition
Hormones secreted mainly by gonads during adulthood. Some is secred by the adrenal cortex. Lipid-soluble. Includes androgens and estrogens.
Term
Graft rejection
Definition
A malfunction of the immune system.
Term
Gram-negative
Definition
A classification of bacteria. Cell walls with less peptidoglycan. May have lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins in the membrane.
Term
Gram-positive
Definition
A classification of bacteria. Cell wall has layers of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids.
Term
Granules
Definition
Sacks of chemicals found in granulocytes that destroy invading pathogens. May be stained.
Term
Granulocytes
Definition
A type of white blood cell. Originates from myeloblasts. Have granules in the cytoplasm. Includes neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
Term
Grave's disease
Definition
An auto-immune disorderr where the immune system produces antibodies that mimic TSH, stimulating the thyroid gland to enlarge and overprouce TH. Increased metbaolic rate and heart rate, sweating, nerousness, weight loss, and exophthalmos. Treated with drugs that block TH production, radioactive iodine, or surgery to reduce the sie of the thyroid gland.
Term
Gray matter
Definition
The cell bodies of motor neurons of spinal nerves.
Term
Grief
Definition
A mental state of distress that occurs in reaction to significant loss, including one's own impending death, the death of a loved one, or a near-death experience.
Term
Grief work
Definition
The process of integrating the reality of a death into one's life. Takes time and emotional effort.
Term
Growth factors
Definition
Local signal molecules. Peptides/proteins that stimulate cells to grow, develop, and multiply. A banne substance at all times in sporting competitions.
Term
Growth hormone (GH)
Definition
A hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Increases cell size and rate of cell division. Target cells are bone, muscle, cartilage, and other tissues. Makes fats more available as a source of fuel. Its releasing hormone is GHRH and its inhibiting hormone is GHIH. Problems with GH can cause gigantism, acromegaly, and pituitary dwarfism. GH used to be harveste dfrom the pituitary glands of cadavers. Nowadays it can be produced in a laboratory. Used to reverse aspects of aging, and can increase the height of below-average height children.
Term
Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
Definition
The inhibiting hormone for GH.
Term
Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
Definition
THe releasing hormone for GH.
Term
Gustation
Definition
The sense of taste. Chemoreceptors on taste buds sense five tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.
Term
Gut motility
Definition
The action of peristalsis. Carefully controlled to move food at the ccorrect time from one section of the GI tract to the next. Too rapid movements can lead to tissue damage.
Term
Haemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS)
Definition
In the Walkerton E. coli tragedy, there were 27 cases.
Term
Hashimoto's thyroiditis
Definition
An organ-specific autoimmune disorder. The thyroid gland is attacked.
Term
Hassles
Definition
A source of stress. Petty annoyances, irritations, and frustrations. Cumulative effects may be harmful in the long run.
Term
Hay fever
Definition

aka Allergic rhinitis

"Nose inflammation"

The most common allergic reaction. Caused by pollen, mold spores, animal dander, and/or the feces of dust mites. Allergen is inhaled and mast cells in the lining of the nasal cavity react, causing sneezing and nasal congestion. Mast cells in the mucous membranes of the eyes may respond causing red, watery eyes.

Term
HCl
Definition
A component of gastric juice. Kills bacteria, breaks down connective tissues in meats, and activates pepsinogen.
Term
Headache
Definition
There are no pain receptors in the brain; headaches are caused by stress, hunger, bad food, too much sleep, or too little sleep. Includes tension and migraine headaches.
Term
Heart
Definition
An organ with some endocrine cells. Its parenchymal cells are cardiomyocytes. An organ of the cardiovascular system. A muscular pump that contracts rhythmically more than 100,000 times a day. Moves almost 5 L of blood every movement. Its parts include the myocardium, endocardium, pericardium, septum, AV valves, semilunar valves, atria, and ventricles.
Term
Heart attack
Definition

aka Myocardial infarction

When the blood supply to the heart is blocked, such as by coronary thrombosis.

Term
Heart murmurs
Definition
Swooshing sounds made by the heart created by disturbed flow, such as by a faulty heart valve.
Term
Heart rate
Definition
Controlled by the autonomuc nervous system. In stressful situations the sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate; the adrenal medulla prolongs the effect with epinephrine. In restful situlations, the parasympathetic nervous system decreases hear trate. Larger animals have slower heart rates compared to smaller animals. Endurance athletes have slower heart rates than the average person.
Term
Heart transplant surgery
Definition
A surgical treatment for heart failure. Generally used only on patients younger than 80 years old. A donor must be found whose tissue is an acceptable match for the recipient. A heart-lung machine takes over circulation while the heart is removed during surgery. Afterwards the recipient takes drugs that lessen the chances of organ rejection.
Term
Heat
Definition
One of the four cardinal signs of inflammation. Increased blood flow elevates temperature in the area of injury. Increases metabolic rate of cells, speeding healing. Increases activity of defensive cells.
Term
Hedonic hunger
Definition
Hunger for pleasure purposes. Reward centres of the brain are stimulated by foods, particularly foods high in fats and sugars.
Term
Helicobacter pylori
Definition

H. pylori

A bacteria that affects the upper gastrointestinal tract and immune system.

Term
Helper T cell
Definition
aka CD4+T cells. The "on" switch for the immune response. Macrophages presentantigen to them, activating them. Cause specific defensive mechanisms when an invader is detected, triggering the immune response. Divides to form effector helper T cells and memory helper T cells.
Term
Heme ring
Definition
A component of hemoglobin. Contains an iron ion. Can carry 4 molecules of oxygen at atime.
Term
Hemoglobin
Definition
The chemical found in red blood cells. An oxygen-binding red pigment. Four globins and one heme ring. Can carry 4 oxygen molecules at a time on its heme ring, forming oxyhemoglobin. Can bind to carbon dioxide at a different site. Binds to carbon monoxide 200 times more readily. Hemoglobin from worn-out red blood cells is converted in the liver into iron, which is sent to the bone marrow, and bilirubin, which is excreted in feces.
Term
Hemoglobin S
Definition
An abnormal form of hemoglobin that causes sickle-cell anemia.
Term
Hemolytic anemia
Definition
A type of anemia. Blood cells are ruptured due to infection, defects, mismatched blood transfusion, or hemoglobin abnormalities. Includes sickle-cell anemia.
Term
Hemolytic disease of the newborn
Definition
When a mother with Rh- blood is carrying a child with Rh+ blood, if she has anti-Rh factor antibodies in her body (from previous exposure to Rh+ blood), the antibodies pass freely to the fetus and destroy the fetus' red blood cells, resulting in stillburth or extreme anemia at birth. Treated with RhoGAM.
Term
Hemophilia
Definition
An inherited condition more common in males. Genes for clotting agents are altered. The most comon types are abnormalities in clotting factors VIII and IX. As a child, bruises may form on the knees and elbows. Cuts bleed for extended times. Internal bleeding may damage nerves, possibly permanently crippling the person. Treated with injections or transfusions of plasma with the missing clotting factor. This used to require thousands of blood donors to aquire enough clotting factor, byut now clotting factor can be produced artificially.
Term
Hepatic artery
Definition
Delivers oxygenated blood to the liver, separate from the hepatic portal vein.
Term
Hepatic portal vein
Definition
Carries nutrient-rich blood from the intestines to the liver before any other part of the body. The liver sorts and filters the blood.
Term
Hepatic vein
Definition
Carries sorted and filtered blood from the liver to the rest of the body.
Term
Hepatitis
Definition
Inflammation of the liver. Symptoms include jaundice. Caused by one of six viruses: hepatitis A, B, C, D, E, or G, which differ in means of transmission and severity. The most common is hepatits C.
Term
Hepatitis C
Definition
Hepatitis caused by the C virus. 4 million people in the US have it. Has mild symptoms; people may not be aware they carry it. Passed through contaminated blood.
Term
Hepatocyte
Definition
The parenchymal cells of the liver.
Term
Heterotrophic
Definition
A classification of bacteria. Obtain food from other organisms. Feed on dead organic matter, or are parasitic.
Term
High-density lipoproteins (HDL)
Definition

"Good cholesterol"

Remove cholesterol from artery walls.

Term
High fever
Definition
A fever over 40.6ºC. Dangerous. Can inactivate enzymes needed for biochemical reactions within body cells.
Term
Hippocampus
Definition
A part of the brain. Buried in the temporal lobe. Important for learning and short-term memory. Short term memories are converted into long-term memories.
Term
Histamine
Definition
A local signal molecule. Secreted by mast cells in response to chemicals from damaged cells or from IgEs during an allergic reaction. Stimulates blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable in inflammation response, swelling, release of mucous, and contraction of smooth muscles.
Term
HIV-AIDS
Definition
A white blood cell deficiency that affects helper T cells. Loss of immunity memory and the ability of cells to tell when to attack. Enormous stress on T cells, which are lost and produced at an elevated rate. Un-medicated, HIV can turn into AIDS. Most people living with HIV use medication to keep T cell count at a normal level. People with AIDS usually die from an infectious disease. They may also develop Kaposi's sarcoma.
Term
Hives
Definition
An allergic reaction. Caused by foods (shellfish, strawberries, chocolate, nuts, tomatoes), insect bites, drugs (penicillin, aspirin), food additives, dyes, or cosmetics. Mast cells in the skin react to produce red and swollen patches.
Term
Homeostatic failure
Definition
When the variable is below the reactive scope limit.
Term
Homeostatic hunger
Definition
Hunger for food for maintaining homeostasis. Essential nutrients and fuels.
Term
Homeostatic overload
Definition
When the variable is above the reactive scope limit.
Term
Homeostasis
Definition
Phrase coined by Cannon in 1932. A balanced equilibrium of physical and mental state where all the body's systems function well and are maintained, using negative feedback loops, at a specific set point. Found in every living organism. Has pulses of change. If there are numerous counter-acting systems, pulses are more frequent and have a tigher range. Sensors detect deviance from the set point and signal the brain which activatse mechanisms that return the body to the set point.
Term
Hormone
Definition
Chemical messengers of the endocrine system. Released in small amounts by endocrine glands and cells triggered by other hormones, nervous signals, and changes in ion or nutrient concentration in the blood. Travel through the body by the blood stream, coming into contact with all cells, but only affecting target cells. Can be in negative and positive feedback mechanisms. Affect growth, development, homeostasis, reproduction, neurodevelopment, immunity, and many other aspects of the CCN.
Term
Hormone antagonist
Definition
A drug prohibited at all times in athletic competitions. Includes hormone modulators.
Term
Hormone sensitive lipase (HSL)
Definition
Regulates lipolysis.
Term
Hot reactors
Definition
People who are sensitive to stressors and may react more intensely than most people.
Term
Hydrocephalus
Definition
A disorder of the cerebrospinal fluid vessels. Child has a ventricular cannula shunted to the abdominal cavity. Excessive production of cerebrospinal fluid. The child's skull plates have not fused yet, so the child has a very large head.
Term
Hyperglycemia
Definition

aka High blood glucose

Causes increased urine volume and persistent thirst. Long-term health impacts. Glucose corsslinks with protein. Gradual degeneration of cardiovascular and nerual tissues.

Term
Hypertension
Definition
High blood pressure above 140/80 mmHg. The "silent killer". There are no symptoms. The heart thickens and overworks in order to keep blood moving, which could lead to a heart attack. Damages kidneys by reducing blood flow; kidneys release renin that causes more blood to be produced. Can be caused by reduced ability to handle sodium in the blood; kidneys increase blood volume to deal with the extra sodium. Can be caused by stress; blood vessels constrict, increasing blood pressure. Treated with diuretics or drugs that dilate blood vessels. To prevent hypertension, maintain normal body weight, exercise, don't smoke, and limit salt intake. Includes essential hypertension and secondary hypertension.
Term
Hypertrophy
Definition
Enlarged heart. A sign of an overworked heart. Caused by high blood pressure and narrowing of the aortic semilunar valve. Occurs in endurance athletes and weightlifters.
Term
Hypoglycemia
Definition
Low blood glucose. Many individuals experience low level hypoglycemia. Serious cases caused by insulin overdose. Below 4 mM, epinephrine is released, racing heart, jitteres. Below 3 mM, weak, drowsy, confused, clouded vision; may be cured with a sugary snack. Below 2 mM, coma and death; cured with a glucagon injection.
Term
Hypothalamis
Definition
The part of the brain which regulates physiological responses like body temperature, sleeping, and water levels. Has endocrine tissue. Attached to the pituitary gland by a short stalk. Connected to the posterior lobe by nerves and the anterior lobe by the circulatory system. Nerve cells synthesize hormones and deliver them to the posterior lobeof the pituitary gland. Releases releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones to control secretions of the anteior lobe. Controls the SNS. Directs the stress response by stimulating release of epinephrine, ACTH, and endorphins.
Term
IBM's Watson Computer
Definition
In 2011 it beat humans at the game Jeopardy. Reprogrammed to help the health science research and healthcare practice.
Term
Ibuprofen
Definition
Treats pain by counter-acting chemicals produced by damaged tissues.
Term
IgA
Definition
A class of antibodies. Dimers or monomers. Found in tears, saliva, mucous, the gastrointestinal system, the excretory system, and breast milk. Levels decrease during stress, raising susceptibility to infections. Prevents pathogens from attaching to epithelial cells of surface linings.
Term
IgD
Definition
A class of antibodies. Monomers. Found on the surface of many B cells. Found in the blood and lymph. Life span is 3 days. Involved in the recognition of antigen and activating B cells.
Term
IgE
Definition
A class of antibodies. Monomers. Secreted by plasma cells in the skin, and mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal tract and respiratory system. Binds to the surface of mast cells and basophils, triggering release of histamine and other chemicals from the mast cells during allergic reactions.
Term
IgG
Definition
The most abundant class of antibodies. Monomers. Found in the blood, lymph, and intestines. Primary and secondary immune response. Can pass through placenta from mother to fetus. Provides passive immune protection to fetus and newborn. Enhances phagocytosis, neutralizes toxins, and triggers the complement system.
Term
IgM
Definition
A class of antibodies. Pentamers. Attached to B cells, where they act as receptors for antigens. Free in the blood and lymph. The first class released by plasma cells. Powerful agglutinating agent: 10 antigen-binding sites. Activates the complement system.
Term
Ileum
Definition
The third section of the small intestine. Absorption occurs.
Term
Iliac artery
Definition
The artery that delivers blood to the pelvic organs and abdominal wall.
Term
Iliac vein
Definition
The vein that carries blood away from the pelvic organs and abdominal wall.
Term
Ileocecal valve
Definition
The sphincter that separates the small intestine and large intestien. Involuntary control by the autonomic nervous system.
Term
Immune response
Definition
Immune system. A specfic defense of the local support and defense system. The lymphatic system produces immune cells which recognize, immobilize, and destroy specific pathogens or foreign molecules. Has memory; it remembers pathogens and attacks more quickly the second time. Affected by stres; cortisols damage B cells and T cells.
Term
Immunosenescence
Definition
Decline of the immune system with age. NK cell number increases, but their effectiveness is decreased. Pro-inflammatory cytokine activity is increased. Older people are at an increased risk for severe reactions to infections.
Term
Incisor
Definition
Teeth that slice food. There are eight.
Term
Incretins
Definition
A hormone that regulates blood glucose. Released from the small intestine in response to glucose ingestion. Stimulates the release of insulin and inhibits the release of glucagon. Prepares the body for an increase in blood glucose. Include GLP-1 and GIP.
Term
Indirect route
Definition
Stress results in behavioural coping responses that affect health, such as smoking, eating habits, and drug use. Certain personality traits predispose a person to disease by the manner in which they respond to stress. Stress may produce symptoms such as anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, and shakiness which may be perceived as illness.
Term
Infectious diseases
Definition
A malfunction of the immune system.
Term
Infectious mononucleosis
Definition

aka Mono

aka Kissing disease

Caused by Epstein-Barr virus which is common in humans. Spread by oral contact. Increased lymphocytes with an abnormal appearance. Fever, chills, headache, sore throat, and sense of being ill. Lymph nodes in the neck, armpits, and groin become painful and swollen. There is no treatment; symptoms subside in a few weeks.

 

Term
Inferior vena cava
Definition
A vein that carries blood from the lower body to the heart. Enters the heart at the right atrium.
Term
Inflammation
Definition

aka Inflammatory response

aka Inflammation reaction

Part of the body's second line of defense against pathogens. Destroys pathogens and helps repair and restore damaged tissue. After recovery, the area may leak pus containing dead cells, microbes, and phagocytse. Has four cardinal signs: redness, heat, swelling, and pain.

Term
Inflammatory and secretory diarrhea
Definition
A disorder of secretion in the GI tract.
Term
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)
Definition
A malfunction of the immune system. Pain and diarrhea. Worsens and improves in an alternating manner. Stress can cause "flare-ups". Includes CD and UC.
Term
Inflammatory compounds
Definition
Hormones that regulate blood glucose. Released by the immune cells during inflammation. Impair insulin sensitivity. Includes interleukin-6, resistin, and tumour necrosis factor.
Term
Inhibiting hormones
Definition
Hormones released by the hypothalamus that inhibit hormone secretions from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Includes GHIH.
Term
Insomnia
Definition
Difficulty falling asleep, waking in the night, or waking earlier than normal. Treated with a regulated sleeping cycle. Sleeping pills do not help; REM becomes abnormal and the person may develop a resistance to them over time.
Term
Insulin
Definition
A hydrophillic, anabolic hormone secreted by beta cells in the pancreas. Has a negative feedback loop with glucagon to maintain blood glucose homeostasis. Decreases blood glucose levels, preventing hyperglycemia. Released after a meal when blood sugar is high. Stimulates transport of glucose into muscle, connective tissue, and adipose cells by moving GLUT4 to the cell membrane. Also stimulates uptake of amino acids and fatty acids. Inhibits conversion of glycogen, fatty acids, and amino acids into glucose in the liver. Deficiency in insulin can cause diabetes mellitus.
Term
Insulin shock
Definition
Caused by over-secretion of insulin caused by a tumour in the pancreas, or over-injection of insulin. Low blood sugar, anxiety, sweating, hunger, weakness, disorientation, convulsions, and unconsciousness. Fatal unless blood sugar levels can be raised.
Term
Intercalated disk
Definition
Specialized junctions that mechanically and electrically couple adjacent cardiac cells.
Term
Interferons
Definition
Defensive proteins. Released by cells infected by a virus. Attracts macrophages and NK cells which then kill the infected cell, and signals to neighboring cells to release proteins that prevent viruses from infecting them. Can be used to treat hairy cell leukemia, Kaposi's sarcoma, hepatits C, HPV, and herpes.
Term
Interleukin-6 (IL-6)
Definition
An inflammatory compound. May be a longevity gene. Plasma levels of IL-6 positively correlate with disability and mortality. People with the GG genotype have longer lifespans.
Term
Internal anal sphincter
Definition
A sphincter that separates the large intestine and the anus. Involuntary control by the autonomic nervous system.
Term
Internal receptors
Definition
Sensory receptors on the inside of the body. Sense the internal environment. We are often unaware of stimuli. Important for homeostasis; key components to regularing blood pressure, blood chemistry, and breathing rate. Allow for sensations of pain, hunger, and thirst.
Term
Interstitial fluid
Definition
The fluid which bathes all cells of the body. Excess interstitial fluid flows into the lymph nodes and becomes lymph.
Term
Intrinsic factor
Definition
A component of gastric juice. Aids in the uptake of vitamin B12. Lack of intrinsic factor can lead to pernicious anemia.
Term
Iron deficiency anemia
Definition
The most common type of anemia. Caused by too little iron in the diet, a reduced ability to absorb iron, or blood loss. Treated by restoring iron levels; eating meat, leafy green vegetables, fortified cereals, and/or iron supplements. Women are more likely to get it due to the monthly blood loss of mensturation.
Term
Irritable bowel syndrome
Definition
A common GI disorder. Stress and psychological factors play a role. Anatomical defect in the gut neuroendocrine system causing hypersensitivity, dysmotility, and abnormal secretion. Abdominal pain, prolonged periods of diarrhea or constipation. Stress causes bloating, pain, and/or diarrhea to increase.
Term
Ischemia
Definition
Reduced blood supply to the heart. Can cause angina pectoris, especially when physically active.
Term
Jaundice
Definition
When the liver is unable to filter out bilirubin, which then accumulates in the skin and whites of the eyes, giving the person a yellowish colou. A symptom of hepatitis.
Term
Jejunum
Definition
The second section of the small intestine. Absorption occurs.
Term
Jugular vein
Definition
A vein that carries blood from the head to the heart.
Term
Kaposi's sarcoma
Definition
A form of cancer common only in people who have AIDS. Brown melanin spots form inside and outside of the body.
Term
Keratinocytes
Definition
The parenchymal cells of the skin.
Term
Ketone bodies
Definition
The liver converts glucose into this. More water soluble than fatty acids. If they build up in the blood it can cause acidosis.
Term
Kidney
Definition
Organs with some endocrine tissues. Its parenchymal cells are tubule epithelial cells. An organ of the lymphatic system. Filters and adjusts the volume and content of blood plasma. Indirectly controls blood pressure.
Term
Lactase
Definition
An enzyme released by the small intestine. Digests lactose into glucose and galactose. Lack of this enzyme causes lactose intolerance.
Term
Lactate
Definition
Released by skeletal muscles when metabolizing glycogen. In the liver it is turned into glucose.
Term
Lacteal
Definition
Lymph vessels found in each villi of the small intestine. The conduit through which large fatty molecules enter the lymphatic system from the digestive system.
Term
Lactose
Definition
A sugar found in milk. Broken down by lactase.
Term
Lactose intolerance
Definition
Absense of the enzyme lactase. Undigested lactose travels to the colon where bacteria thrive on it, causing bloating, gas, and abdominal discomfort. Common in adults. Treated with lactase tablets or avoiding dairy products.
Term
Lap banding procedure
Definition
A gastric bypass surgery for weight loss. A silicone band containing saline is placed around the upper stomach under the skin. Easily inflated, allowing adjustment. Results in 40% - 50% weight loss within a year of surgery.
Term
Large intestine
Definition
A portion of the GI tract. A long tube where water and ions are absorbed. One of the body's first lines of defense against pathogens. Bacteria inhabitants keep pathogenic bacteria in check, and perform some digestion. Lined with mucous. Has slower peristalsis than the small intestine. Forms, stores, and expels feces. Consists of the colon, rectum, and anal canal.
Term
Larynx
Definition

aka Voice box

aka Adam's apple

Pushes up the epiglottis during swallowing to prevent food from entering the respiratory system.

Term
Later diastole
Definition
The second stage of diastole in the cardiac cycle. The atria and ventricles continue to relax and fill passively.
Term
Lead poisoning
Definition
Consuming lead can lead to anemia.
Term
Left atrium
Definition
Receives blood from the pulmonary veins. Pumps blood into the left ventricle through the mitral valve.
Term
Left half of the heart
Definition
Pumps oxygenated blood through the systemic circuit. Includes the left atrium, mitral valve, left ventricle, and aortic semilunar valve.
Term
Left ventricle
Definition
Receives blood from the left atrium through the mitral valve. Pumps blood into the aorta through the aortic semilunar valve.
Term
Legal age
Definition

aka Chronologic age

Age based on chronological years.

Term
Leptin
Definition
An anti-obesity hormone that regulates blood glucose. Produced in adipose tissue. Affects appetite in the brain, reducing food intake. Stimulates metabolic rate, promoting insulin's effect. Stimulates lipolysis.
Term
Leukemia
Definition
A disorder of the circulatory system. Cancer of white blood cells, bone marrow, or spleen. Forms non-solid tumours. Uncontrolled multiplication of white blood cells. Increased number, but they are immature and unable to fight infections. Hamper the production of normal formed elements. Results inanemia, inadequate blood clotting, susceptibility to infections, and bone tenderness. Treated with radiation therapy and chemotherapy. May be cured with bone marrow transplant.
Term
Lifestyle
Definition
An input to health. Social and emotional loneliness is associated with decreased physiological complexity.
Term
Lifetime risk
Definition
The probability that a person will develop cancer over the course of their lifetime.
Term
Ligament
Definition
Strong bands of tissue that connect bones and stabilize the joint in addition to muscles and tendons, to enable movement.
Term
Lipase
Definition
An enzyme produced by the pancreas. Digests triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol. Water-soluble; can only work at the surface of a fat droplet. Bile increases this surface area by emulsifying fat into small droplets.
Term
Lipid-soluble hormones
Definition
Includes steroids. Derived from cholesterol. Secreted by the ovaries, testes, and adrenal glands. Moves freely into the target cell and attaches to receptors in the cytoplasm which then attach to DNA in the nucleus, leading to the production of specific proteins which  may stimulate or inhibit metabolic activities.
Term
Lipid storage
Definition
Lipids stored as triglycerides in adipose tissue. Stores as much as  135,000 kcal of energy. Lipids do not need to be hydrated in storage, making them 70 times more energy-dense than glycogen. During exercise, muscle cells take fatty acids from the blood via albumin. Fat cannot be metabolized in an anaerobic environment. 77% of energy stored.
Term
Lipoatrophy
Definition
A form of lipotoxicity. There is complete absense of fat in adipocytes. Individuals are very lean and become severely insulin resistant.
Term
Lipolysis
Definition
Breakdown of triglycerides. Regulated by HSL and ATGL.
Term
Lipotoxicity
Definition
Inability to build fat in adipose tissue; instead, fat is stored in tissues such as the heart, kidneys, liver, or skeletal muscle. Metabolic impairment. Includes lipoatrophy.
Term
Liver
Definition
An accessory organ. One of the largest organs in the body; just under 2 kg. Has  4 lobes, dividing into smaller lobules. Its parenchymal cells are hepatocytes. Has over 500  functions. It sorts blood coming from the GI tract through the hepatic portal vein before it enters the body through the hepatic vein. Detoxifies, processes, and regulates nutrient release. Receives oxygenated blood from the heart through the hepatic artery. Produces bile. Controls glucose in the blood by storing and breaking down triglycerides and glycogen, and through gluconeogenesis. Forms lipoproteins for transporting fats. Stores vitamins A, D,E, K, B12, and folate. Removes and breaks down poisons including lead, mercury, and pesticides. Converts products of amino acid breakdown into urea.
Term
Local death
Definition
Death of a body part or portion of an organism.
Term
Local pain
Definition
Pain that is perceived in the actual area of tissue damaged (as opposed to referred pain). Includes pain caused by vertebral disks.
Term
Local signal molecules
Definition
Act near the site of their release. Reaction takes seconds or miliseconds. Includes neurotransmitters, prostaglandins, growth factors, nitric oxide,and histamine.
Term
Local support and defense system
Definition
Includes the nonspecific defenses the first and second line of defense, and the specific defense the immune response. Aids with infections by pathogens, tissue damage, normal tissue turnover, tissue repair and redevelopment, and maintenance of existing cells. Includes the maintenance and support system, adaptation and repair system, resident defense system, and migrant defense system.
Term
Longitudinal layer
Definition
A layer of smooth muscle in the muscularis layer of the GI tract. Muscles arranged parallel to the GI tract. GI tract shortens when contracted.
Term
Low back pain (LBP)
Definition
One of the top two reasons for doctor's visits, and 40% of missed work days. Affects 80% of Canadians at some point. Affects mostly middle-aged people. Many cases get better without medical intervention. Pain or discomfort in the lower back. Acute or chronic. Includes back dominant pain, sciatica, and neurogenic claudication. Treated with chiropractic manipulation, massage, acupuncture, pilates, yoga, and cognitive behavioural therapy. Risk factorsinclude genetics, environement, lifestyle, and healthcare behaviours. Can originate from the brain, spinal cord, spinal nerves, vertebral disks, vertebral bones, or lower back muscles, tendons, and ligaments.
Term
Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
Definition

"Bad cholesterol"

Can cause inflammation of arteries in atherosclerosis. Tend to build up and accumulate on artery walls.

Term
Low self-esteem
Definition
Makes a person more likely to feel helpless anger where they feel that they are wrong to feel angry. Creates a self-imposed distressor that can impair the immune system, putting them at higher risk for AIDS, herpes, multiple sclerosis, and Epstein-Barr syndrome.
Term
Lower esophageal sphincter
Definition
The sphincter that separates the esophagus and the stomach. Involuntary control by the autonomic nervous system.
Term
Lumen
Definition
The hollow interior of blood vessels or the hollow interior of the GI tract.
Term
Lungs
Definition
Their parenchymal cells are alveolar epithelial cells.
Term
Lupus
Definition

aka Systematic lupus erythematosis

A non-organ-specific autoimmune disorder. Connective tissue is attacked. Skin lesions, rashes, butterfly-shaped rash on the cheeks, pericarditis, arthritis, nephritis, and seizures.

Term
Lutenizing hormone (LH)
Definition
A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. In women it causes ovulation, stimulates ovaries to secrete estrogren and progesterone, prepares uterus for pregnancy, and breasts for milk production. In men, it stimulates testes to synthesize and secrete testosterone.
Term
Lymph
Definition
A fluid of the lymphatic system. Identical to interstitial fluid. When put into a centrifuge, it lacks red blood cells and platelets. Does not clot. Flows through lymph vessels.
Term
Lymph nodes
Definition
Lymphoid organs. A specialized mini-organ. Bean-shaped structureson lymphatic vessels that cleanse lymph as it filters through, removing bacteria, cancer cells, and debris. Has many types of white blood cells. Swell if there is an infection, due to increased number of white blood cells. Found in the neck, armpits, and groin.
Term
Lymphatic capillaries
Definition
Networks of lymphatic vessels. Interstitial fluid enters at the dead ends. Found in almost every tissue (not the teeth or central nervous system). More permeable than blood vessels. Converge, forming larger tubes that connect with veins at the base of the neck.
Term
Lymphatic system
Definition
Fluids are blood, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, and extracellular fluid.Vessels are blood vessels, lymph vessels, and cerebrospinal fluid vessels. Organs are the heart, kidneys, spleen, thymus, tonsils, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs. Innervation is sympathetic, parasympathetic, and sensory. The stem cell pool is in bone marrow and others. Returns excess interstitial fluid to the blood stream. Transports fat from digestion to the blood. Helps defend against disease-causing organisms.
Term
Lymphatic vessels
Definition
Lymphoid organs. Vessels of the lymphatic system. Collect material from extracellular fluid at capillary beds. Move lymph back to major veins of the blood system. The lymph vessels are not in a continuous loop. Lymph moves very slowly. The cells are arranged like roofing tiles; allows extracellular fluid to flow into the lymph capillary, but not out. Effected by lymphedema.
Term
Lymphedema
Definition
A disorder of the lymph vessles. Aclot forms in a lymph vessel.
Term
Lymphoblasts
Definition
Mature into lymphocytes. May mature in the lymphoid tissues. Originate from stem cells.
Term
Lymphocytes
Definition
Originate from lymphoblasts. White blood cells produced in the bone marrow that are responsible for the specificityand memory of the immune system. Recognize and attack one particular type of antigen by developing unique receptors. Includes B cells and T cells.
Term
Lymphoma
Definition
Cancer in the lymphatic system. Hodgkin's disease. Forms solid tumours.
Term
Lymphoid organs
Definition
Organs in the lymphatic system. Includes tonsils, right lymphatic duct, thymus gland, thoracic duct, spleen, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, Peyer's patches, and red bone marrow.
Term
Lysis
Definition
The L in PLAN. A way that antibodies defend against antigens. Antibodiesactivate the complement system, causing lysis in the membranes of cellular pathogens.
Term
Lysozome
Definition
An enzyme that kills bacteria. Present in tears and saliva.
Term
Macrophage
Definition

"Big eat"

An antigen-presenting cell. A defense non-parenchymal cell of myeloid origin. A type of phagocyte that consumes less discriminately. Engulfs virtually anything, including viruses, bacteria, and damaged tissues. Presents antigens to helper T cells, activating them.

Term
Macular degeneration
Definition
Disease that breaks down the macula, the light-sensitive part of the retina responsible for sharp, direct vision.
Term
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Definition
Uses  powerful magnets to look inside the body. Diagnoses heart disease.
Term
Malignant tumour
Definition
A cancerous tumour.
Term
Maltase
Definition
An enzyme released by the small intestine. Digests maltose into glucose.
Term
Marshmallows
Definition
A purely hedonic food. Recreational; for pleasure only. All calories are derived from sugar.
Term
Mast cells
Definition
A non-parenchymal defense cell of myeloid origin. Cells that secrete histamine in response to chemicals from damaged cells, or from IgEs during an allergic reaction.
Term
Matrix
Definition
A component of cartilage. Weight bearing capacity is possible due to changes in water content, allowing deformation of cartilage resurface in response to stress. Provides nutrition and lubrication of cartilage.
Term
Mechanical digestion
Definition
Physical breaking of food into smaller pieces. Aided by teeth, stomach churning, and segmental contractions in the GI tract.
Term
Mechanoreceptors
Definition
A type of sensory receptor. Detects sensation of touch, pressure, hearing, balance, changes in blood pressure, and body position. Respond to distortions: stretching, compression, or twisting of themselves or nearby cells.
Term
Megakaryoblasts
Definition
Cells that mature into megakaryocytes. Originate from stem cells.
Term
Megakaryocytes
Definition
Originate from megakaryoblasts. Fragment, creating platelets.
Term
Meissner's corpuscle
Definition
A type of encapsulated nerve ending that senses light touches. Dendrites are in a capsule. Common on hairless, sensitive areas such as the lips, nipples, and fingertips.
Term
Melatonin
Definition
A hormone secreted by the pineal gland. Reduces jet lag and promotes sleep. More is produced at nighttime. Inhibits the production of the pigment melanin in the melanocytes of the skin. Influences sleep and seasonal changes in mood. It is used widely as a sleep enhancement drug.
Term
Memory
Definition
Impaired by sleep deprivation. Improved by REM sleep. Dependent on multiple learning sessions separated by deep sleep.
Term
Memory B cells
Definition
Produced  by naive B cells. Specialized to fight specific antigens. Play a role in secondary response.
Term
Memory cells
Definition
Lymphocytes that "remember" invaders and cause a more rapid and efficient response if there is a reinvasion. Can live for decades. Include memory B cells, memory helper T cells, and memory cytotoxic T cells.
Term
Memory cytotoxic T cells
Definition

aka CD8+T cells

Produced by naive cytotoxic T cells. Play a role in secondary response.

Term
Memory helper T cells
Definition
Produced by activated  helper T cells. Play a role in secondary response.
Term
Menstrual cramps
Definition
Caused by prostaglandins released by cells of the uterine lining that cause muslce contractions. Treated with aspirin or ibuprofen.
Term
Merkel cell
Definition
Adjacent to a merkel disk. When compressed it stimulates the free nerveendings of the merkel disk.
Term
Merkel disk
Definition
A type of free nerve ending that senses light touches. Nerve ending is adjacent to a merkel cell. When compressed it stimulates the free nerve ending in the merkel disk. Found in hairy and hairless parts of the skin.
Term
Mesentery
Definition
Connective tissue that holds the GI tract.
Term
Metabolic syndrome
Definition
Caused by reduced physical complexity. Increased visceral fat, increased blood fatty acids, low HDL cholesterol, increased blood pressure, elevated fasting blood glucose. Common in middle-aged adults. A risk factor for cartiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, et cetera. Consuming trans fats increases risk.
Term
Metastasis
Definition
Cancer spreads from one area to different areas of the body.
Term
MHC markers
Definition

Major histocompatibility complex markers

Markers on cell surfaces that lebel the cell as "self". Unique to every person. The immune system does not attack cells marked with MHC markers.

Term
Micelle
Definition
In the small intestine, fats react with bile salts to form tiny droplets that enter epithelial cells.
Term
Microvilli
Definition
Smaller projections on the surface of villi in the small intestine. Increase surface area for absorption. Form the brush border.
Term
Middle-old
Definition
Aged 75 - 84 years.
Term
Migraine headache
Definition

aka Sick headache

Throbbing pain behind the eyes, usually to one side. Can cause nasea and vomiting. May experience an aura before onset. Caused by an imbalance in the brain's serotonin levels. Pain messages flood the brain.

Term
Mild fever
Definition
Slows the growth of bacteria. The liver and spleen remove iron from the blood; bacteria need iron to reproduce. Increases the metabolic rate of body cells; higher rates speed up defensive responses and repair processes.
Term
Milk ducts
Definition
A part of the breast. Transports milk from milk glands to the nipple.
Term
Milk glands
Definition
A part of the breast. Produces milk.
Term
Milk ridge
Definition
A line from the armpit to the groin where breast tissue initially begins to develop in the sixth week of fetal life.
Term
Mineral
Definition
A nutrient.
Term
Mineralocorticoid
Definition
Hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex. Lipid-soluble. Increase sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion by the kidneys. Includes aldosterone.
Term
Minivalves
Definition
Valves in the  lymphatic vessels which ensure lymph flows in one direction. Motion is driven by muscle contractions and changes in pressure caused by breathing.
Term
Mitokines
Definition
A chemical released by mitochondria that allows them to communicate with each other.
Term
Mitral valve
Definition

aka Bicuspid valve

aka Left atrioventricular valve

The valve that prevents backflow from the left ventricle into the left atrium. Has two cusps. Prone to stenosis.

Term
Molars
Definition
Teeth that grind food. There are twelve.
Term
Monoblasts
Definition
Mature into monocytes. Originate from stem cells.
Term
Monoclonal antibodies
Definition
Groups of antibodies that can bind to one specific antigen. Can beused in pregnancy tests, screening for diseasesand cancers, and in cancer treatments.
Term
Monocyte
Definition
The cell that develops into macrophages. Originates from monoblasts. The largest formed element. U-shaped nucleus. Gray-blue cytoplasm. 100 - 700 cells per mm3 of blood. Last several months.
Term
Monomer
Definition
A single Y-shaped antibody. Has two binding sites for antigens. Includes IgGs, IgAs, IgDs, and IgEs.
Term
Monosaccharides
Definition
Carbohydrates. A nutrient.
Term
Morbid obesity
Definition
A BMI over 40. A serious medical condition. Treated with gastric bypass surgery.
Term
Motivation to eat
Definition
Includes hedonic and homeostatic hunger.
Term
Motor neurons
Definition
A type of spinal nerve. Enter the spinal cord at the ventral root. Cell bodies in the gray matter.
Term
Mourning
Definition
A culturally prescribed and accepted time period and behaviour pattern for the expression of grief.
Term
Mouth
Definition

aka Oral cavity

A component of the GI tract. Receives food. Includes the palate, teeth, and tongue. Food is monitored for quality, moistened, manipulated into a bolis, and swallowed. Physical and chemical digestion begins.

Term
Mucosa
Definition
The innermost layer of the GI tract. Moist and mucous-secreting. Mucus lubricates the lumen, allowing food to slide through easily, and protecting the lining of the GI tract from rough foods and digestive enzymes. In the stomach and small intestine the mucosa layer releases enzymes. In the small intestine the mucosais highly folded into villi and microvilli to increase surface area for absorption.
Term
Muscle spindles
Definition
Sensory receptors that sense limb position. Specialized muscle fibres wrapped in sensory nerve endings. Monitor the length of skeletal muscles.
Term
Muscularis
Definition
The third layer of the GI tract. Below the submucosa. A double layer of smooth muscle: the circular layer and longitudinal layer. Provides peristalsis and segmental contractions via the myenteric plexus.
Term
Myeloblasts
Definition
Mature into granulocytes. Originate from stem cells.
Term
Myenteric plexus
Definition
A portion of the enteric nervous system in the muscularis layer of the GI tract. Controls muscle contractions.
Term
Myocardial infarction
Definition

"Heart muscle death"

aka Heart attack

Part of the heart muscle dies due to insufficient blood supply. Occurs if blood supply is blocked for more than 2 hours. Brain receives insufficient oxygen. Lungs fill with fluid. Kidneys fail. White blood cells swarm, removing damaged heart tissue. If the person survives, scar tissue replaces dead cardiac muscle, which cannot contract, causing ineffective pumping. Chest pain, which spreads down one or both arms and/or neck and shoulders. Nausea, dizziness. The pain can sometimes be mistaken as an upset stomach. Doubt about symptoms can lead to delay in treatment.

Term
Myocardium
Definition
The wall of the heart. Cardiac muscle tissue. Contracts, resulting in the heart's pumping. Different from skeletal muscle. Neural input is from the autonomic nervous system, involuntary. Neural connectionsare from gap junctions and are much faster. Very high oxidative metabolism; there are lots of mitochondria. Fatigue resistant.
Term
Myocin myofibril
Definition
A muscle protein involved in contraction of skeletal muscle.
Term
Myocyte
Definition
Skeletal muscle cell. The parenchymal cells of skeletal muscle.
Term
Myofibroblast
Definition
Non-parenchymal cells that are included in the base  logic unit of the local support and defense system.
Term
Myxedema
Definition
A condition caused by a TH deficiency during adulthood. Fluid accumulates in facial tissues. Decreases alertness, body temperature, and heart rate. Treated and prevented by oral doses of TH.
Term
Negative feedback mechanisms
Definition
Maintain homeostasis. Regultes the secretion of some hormones. A gland releases a hormone, then rising blood levels of the hormone inhibit further release of the hormonees. In times of extreme stress, the nervoussystem can override negative feedback mechanisms.
Term
Naive B cells
Definition
Activated by effector helper T cells. Form plasma cells and memory B cells.
Term
Naive cytotoxic T cells
Definition
Activated by effector helper T cells. Form memory cytotoxic T cells and effector cytotoxic T cells.
Term
Narcotics
Definition
A drug banned in-competition during athletic competitions.
Term
Natural killer (NK) cells
Definition
A defensive non-parenchymal cell of lymphoid origin. A type of white blood cell. Kill invading organisms, cancer cells, and cells infected by viruses. Give the "kiss of death": proteins that form pores in the target cell, causing water to flow into the cell, bursting it. Affected by stress.
Term
Neglect syndrome
Definition
Results from a stroke on the right side of the body. The person behaves as if the left side of their bodies and objects do not exist.
Term
Neoplasm
Definition
A new growth of tissue with no physiological function. Results from uncontrolled, abnormal cellular development. Includes tumours.
Term
Nephrectomy
Definition
Removal of a kidney. Removing both kidneys is fatal. Removal of one causes the other to almost double in size and perfom at the level of two kidneys.
Term
Nervous system
Definition
Neurons and astrocytes have receptors for many hormones.
Term
Neuroendocrinology
Definition
The relationship between the endocrinesystem and nervous system.
Term
Neurogenic claudication
Definition
A type of back pain. Leg pain when standing or walking. Relieved when bending or sitting. Heaviness in the leggs. Happens to people over age 60. Caused by stenosis.
Term
Neurohormones
Definition
Hormones released into the bloodstream by nerves.
Term
Neuron
Definition
The parenchymal cell of the brain.
Term
Neurotransmitters
Definition
A local signal molecule.
Term
Neutralization
Definition
The N in PLAN. A way that antibodies defend against antigens. Antibodies bind to toxins and viruses, neutralizing them.
Term
Neutrophil
Definition
A defense non-parenchymal cell of myeloid origin. A type of phagocyte. A granulocyte. Arrives at infections before other types of white blood cells and immediately consumes pathogens, especially bacteria, by phagocytosis. Multi-lobed nucleus. Clear-staining nucleus. Inconspicuous granules. 3 - 7 thousand cells per mm3 of blood; the most abundant white blood cell. Lasts 6 - 72 hours. Die after engulfing 12 or so bacteria. Releases chemicals that attract more neutrophils. Found in pus.
Term
Nipple
Definition
A part of the breast.
Term
Nitric oxide (NO)
Definition
A local signal molecule. A gas. Released by endothelial cells of inner lining of blood vessels, signalling to smooth muscles around blood vessels to relax, allowing the vessel to dilate. Aids in peristalsis.
Term
Nitroglycerin
Definition
A drug that dilates blood vessels. Treats angina.
Term
Non-organ-specific autoimmune disorder
Definition
An autoimmune disorder where any organ may be attacked. Effects all through the body. Caused by antibodies produced by B cells gone awry. Includes lupus.
Term
Non-parencymal cells
Definition
Form the basic logic unit of the local supportand defense system. Part of the stroma.
Term
Norepinephrine
Definition

aka Noradrenaline

A catecholamine. A hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla and from sympathetic nerve endings. Lipid-soluble. Causes flight-or-fight response to stress.

Term
Nuclease
Definition
An enzyme produced by the pancreas. Digests DNA  and RNA into nucleotides.
Term
Nutrients
Definition
Amino acids, monosaccharides, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals. They are consumed and processed and absorbed by the digestive system. Distributed throughout the body.
Term
Nutritional status
Definition
Deficiency, adequacy, and excess of nutrients and/or energy.
Term
Oblique layer
Definition
An extra third layer of the GI tract found only around the stomach.
Term
Obesogenic environment
Definition
An environment containing more than enough food. Could lead to obesity. Example: Canada.
Term
Occipital lobe
Definition
One of the lobes of the brain. At the back of the brain. Concerned with vision.
Term
Occlusion
Definition
A clot that becomes so large it blocks an artery which can lead to stroke or heart attack.
Term
Old-old
Definition
Aged 85 years and over.
Term
Olfaction
Definition
The sense of smell. Sensed by chemoreceptors.
Term
Oncogen
Definition
A cancer-causing gene.
Term
Oncologist
Definition
A physician that specializes in malignant neoplasms such as cancer.
Term
Organ-specific autoimmune disorder
Definition
An autoimmune disorder where only a specific organ is attacked. Caused by T cells that have gone awry. Includes Hashimoto's thyroiditis.
Term
Osteoarthritis (OA)
Definition
A disease of cartilage, synovium, and ligaments.
Term
Osteoblasts
Definition
Cells which form bone. Stimualted by CT. Inhibited by PTH.
Term
Osteoclasts
Definition
Cells which destroy bone, releasing calcium. Stimulated by PTH. Inhibited by CT.
Term
Osteoporosis
Definition
A degenerative bone disease characterized by loss of bone mineral density, resulting in an increased fracture risk.
Term
Ovary
Definition
Female-only organs with some endocrine cells. There are two. Secretes lipid-soluble estrogen and progesterone.
Term
Overcrowding
Definition
A source of stress. Presence of too many people in someone's space.
Term
Overload
Definition
Feeling pressured by constant and overwhelming demands.
Term
Oxygen
Definition
A nutrient. Binds to the heme ring of hemoglobin. Hemoglobin containing red blood cells deliver oxygen to all the cells in the body.
Term
Oxyhemoglobin
Definition
Hemoglobin with 4 oxygen molecules bound to its heme ring.
Term
Oxytocin (OT)
Definition

"Quick childbirth"

A hormone secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. In women it stimulates milk ejection from the breasts when stimulated by the suckling of an infant, and stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth. OT has a positive feedback mechanism during childbirth until the child is delivered. In men it stimulates transport of sperm in the male reproductive tract. Pitocin is a synthetic version of oxytocin.

Term
P wave
Definition
A wave of heart activity detected by electrocardiograms. Generated by the electircal signals from the SA node.
Term
Pacinian corpuscle
Definition
A type of encapsulated nerve ending that senses vibrations and strong pressures. Dendrites are surrounded by layers of tissue. Found in deep layers of th skin and underlying tissues.
Term
Pain
Definition
One of the four cardinal signs of inflammation. Excessive fluid leaked into the tissue presses on pain receptors. Bacterial toxins may kill body cells. Injured cells release pain-causing chemicals such as prostaglandins. Pain causes the person to protect the area, avoiding further injury. May be debilitating if it persists longer than necessary. Treated with aspirin and ibuprofen. If damage is to internal organs, referred pain is experienced.
Term
Pain receptor
Definition

aka Nociceptor

Detect physical or chemical damage to tissues. May be classified as a chemoreceptor because they respond to chemicals released by damaged tissues. May be classified as a mechanoreceptor because they are stimulated by physical damage. Found in almost every tissue in the body.

Term
Palate
Definition
The roof of the mouth. The hard palate is near the front of the mouth and is reinforced with bone. The soft palate is near the back of the mouth, and consists of muscle and prevents food from entering the nasal cavity during swallowing.
Term
Pancreas
Definition
An accessory organ. An organ behind the stomach that contains some endocrine and exocrine cells. Exocrine cells release pancreatic juices into the pancreatic duct. Release of enzymes has neural control triggered by the presence of chyme in the small intestine, and hormonal control triggered by vasoactive intestinal peptide and cholecystokinin. Release of sodium bicarbonate ions has hormonal control triggered by secretin. Has pancreatic islets of endocrine cells that include alpha cells and secrete glucagon, beta cells that secrete insulin, delta cells that secrete somatostatin, and F cells that secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
Term
Pancreatic
Definition
A disease of the pancreas.
Term
Pancreatic duct
Definition
Carries pancreatic juices from the pancreas to the small intestine.
Term
Pancreatic islet
Definition

aka Islets of Langerhans

Clusters of alpha, beta, delta, and F cells in the pancreas.

Term
Pancreatic juices
Definition
Produced by exocrine cells in the pancreas. Water, digestive enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, amylase, carboxypeptidase, lipase, and nuclease), and bicarbonate ion buffer that neutralizes the HCl in chyme.
Term
Pancreatic steatosis
Definition
A disease of  the pancreas.
Term
Pancreatitis
Definition
A disease of the pancreas. Acute and chronic.
Term
Paneth cells
Definition
Cells that secrete defensins into the lumen of the GI tract.
Term
Parafollicular cells
Definition
Cells in the thyroid gland other than follicular cells. Produce CT.
Term
Parasympathetic
Definition
An innervation component of the lymphatic system.
Term
Parasympathetic nervous system
Definition
The portion of the ANS responsible for slowing the effects of the SNS. Help the body during times of rest. Uses mostly acetylcholine. NOt unified like the SNS; not all of its neurons are connected; acts slower. Constricts pupils, reduces heart rate and breathing rate, et cetera.
Term
Parathyroid glands
Definition
Four small, round masses on the back of the thyroid gland. Secretes PTH.
Term
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Definition
A hormone secreted by the parathyoid gland. Increases blood levels of calcium. When blood calcium levels are too low, PTH  is secreted. Stimulates osteoclasts and inhibits osteoblasts. Causes calcium to be removed from urine and returned to blood. Increases rate at which calcium is absorbed into th eblood from the GI tract. Works in a negative feedback loop with CT to maintain calcium homeostasis.
Term
Parenchymal cells
Definition
The cells of glands or organs that are the most prominent cell type in terms of function and mass.
Term
Parietal lobe
Definition
One of the lobes of the brain. Sits behind the frontal lobe. Deals with the perception and integration of stimuli from senses.
Term
Parotid salivary glands
Definition
Salivary glands in front of the ears.
Term
Passive immunity
Definition
Receiving antibodies from another individual. Occurs during pregnancy when the mother's antibodies pass onto the fetus. Occurs during breatfeeding. Can be indused by injecting antibodies. Produces an immediate but short-lasting effect.
Term
Pathogens
Definition
Bacteria, viruses, protozoans, fungi, parasitic worms, and prions (infectious protiens), that cause diseaes. Many bacteria are not pathogens, and are beneficial or essential.
Term
Pentamer
Definition
Five antibody monomers bound to each other. Has ten binding sites. Includes IgMs.
Term
Pepsin
Definition
An enzyme in gastric juice. The activated form of pepsinogen. Only activates in the lumen of the stomach when it mixes with HCl. Digests proteins into protein fragments.
Term
Pepsinogen
Definition
The inactivated form of pepsin. HCl activates it when they are mixed in the stomach.
Term
Peptide hormones
Definition
A drug prohibited at all times in athletic competitions. Includes growth factors and related substances.
Term
Perception
Definition
Our awareness of sensations coming from sensory receptors. Occurs in the cerebral cortex, where inputs from sensory receptors and integrated and interpreted.
Term
Perforins
Definition
Proteins released by effector cytotoxic cells. Form holes in the membranes of targetcells, causing lysis.
Term
Pericardium
Definition
A thick, fibrous sack which holds the herat in the centre of the thoracic cavity. Slides over the surface of the heart without hampering its movements.
Term
Pericyte cells
Definition
Non-parenchymal cells that are included in the basic logic unit of the local support and defense system.
Term
Periodontitis
Definition

"Tooth inflammation"

Plaque enters between the tooth and gum, and attack the bone and soft tissue surrounding teeth. Can be caused by gingivitis. Teeth may become loose.

Term
Peripheral clock
Definition
Clocks in the body. Set by the central clock in the brain, which is set by zeitgebars.
Term
Peripheral nervous system
Definition
Carries information between CNS and the rest of the body. Consists of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
Term
Peristalsis
Definition
The rhythmic waves of smooth muscle contraction in the muscularis layer of the GI tract that pushes food along the esophagus, small intestine, and large intestine. Aided by nitric oxide. Presence of food in the lumen causes the walls in one region to contract, triggering contraction in a sliding, pushing motion in one direction.
Term
Peritonitis
Definition
Caused by rupture of an inflamed appendix. Spreading of the infection throughout the abdomen. Can be fatal.
Term
Permissive
Definition
A hormone interaction. One hormone must be present for another hormone to have an effect. Example: thyroid hormone must be present for aldosterone to work.
Term
Pernicious anemia
Definition
A type of anemia casued by lack of intrinsic factor, thus a reduced intake of vitamin B12 from the diet. Red blood cell production is halted or impaired. Treatedwith vitamin B12 injections.
Term
Pesticide
Definition
Something that kills pests.
Term
Peyer's patches
Definition
Lymphoid organs. Clusters of lymph nodes along the small intestine. Keeps bacteria from breaching the intestinal wall.
Term
sPhagocytes
Definition

"Eat cell"

aka Scavenger cells

A defensive cell. A class of white blood cells. Engulf pathogens, damaged tissues, and dead cells by phagocytosis. Once engulfed, the pathogen is digested inside vesicles. Includes neutrophils and macrophages. Affected by stress.

Term
Phagocytosis
Definition
The engulfment of a foreign object into a cell. Phagocytes engulf pathogens, damaged tissues, and dead cells by phagocytosis.
Term
Pharynx
Definition

aka Throat

A conduit in the back of the mouth through wchih both air and food pass.

Term
Phosphorylase
Definition
Catalyzes the breakdown of glycogen in the liver.
Term
Photoreceptor
Definition
A type of sensory receptor. Detect changes in light intensity.
Term
Physical surface barriers
Definition
Part of the body's first line of defense against pathogens.
Term
Physiological complexity
Definition
The ability of an organism to optimize information processing. Underlies health, disease, and aging. Necessary for allostasis. However, there is always an element of chaos. Measured by recording a long continuous stream of physiological, metabolic, and behavioural data and anlyzing it with a computer. Reduced physiological complexity can narrow the reactive scope, leading to many diseases. Affected by the three inputs to health: genetics, environment, and lifestyle. Affected by blocking or distorting information flow, or increasing traffic in the network. Decreases during a coma, general anesthesia, Alzheimer's disease, kinematics, et cetera ... Can be increased through medical treatments and lifestyle interventions.
Term
Phytoalexins
Definition
Defense chemicals made naturally by plants or animals.
Term
Pineal gland
Definition
A tiny endocrine gland in the centre of the brain. Secretes melatonin based on signals from visual pathways. Sensing light inhibits the secretion of melatonin.
Term
Pitocin
Definition
A synthetic version of oxytocin that may be used to speed up childbirth.
Term
Pituitary dwarfism
Definition
A condition caused by tumor in the anterior pituitary gland. There is insufficient GH released during childhood. The person is sterile, and attains a maximum height of 4 feet. Administering GH in childhood can treat pituitary dwarfism.
Term
Pituitary gland
Definition
An endocrine gland the size of a pea. Suspended from the base of the brain by a short stalk. Attaches to the hypothalamus. Has two lobes: posterior lobe and anterior lobe.
Term
Placenta
Definition
An organ with some endocrine cells.
Term
Plaque
Definition
An invisible layer of bacteria on the teeth. Promotes dental cavities by holding acid against tooth enamel. Daily brushing and flossing of teeth helps remove some plaque, reducing risk of dental cavities and gingivitis.
Term
Plasma
Definition
The fluid in blood in which formed elements are suspended. 55% of blood. Straw-coloured, but changes colour after a meal due to dissolved nutrients. Almost all substances transported by blood dissolve in plasma, including nutrients (sugars, amino acids, lipids, vitamins), ions (sodium, potassium chloride), dissolved gasses (carbon dioxide, nitogen, and a small amount of oxygen), hormones, and wastes (urea, uric acid). Contains plasma proteins.
Term
Plasma cells
Definition
Effector cells produced by naive B cells. Specialized to fight a specific pathogen. Release antibodies.
Term
Plasma proteins
Definition
Make up 7% - 8% of protein. Help balance water flow between blood and cells. There are around 50 different types that fall into three categories: albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen.
Term
Plasmin
Definition
An enzyme that dissolves clots after the wound has healed. Digests fibrin. Its inactive form is plasminogen.
Term
Plasminogen
Definition
The inactive form of plasmin.
Term
Platelet
Definition

aka Thrombocytes

"Clot cell"

A formed element. Essential role in blood clotting. Fragments of megakaryocyte cells. Has small, purple-staining granules in the cytoplasm. 250 - 500 thousand cells per mm3 of blood. 200 billion are produced per day. Mature after a week, and circulate for 5 - 10 days. Contain substances that stop the loss of blood through damaged blood vessels.

Term
Platelet plug
Definition
Platelets clinging to collagen on the surface of a torn blood vessel. Platelets swell and form extensions that stick to other platelets, and release chemicals that attract more platelets.
Term
Polyp
Definition
A small, noncancerous growth in the colon. Can become cancerous, causing colorectal cancer. This could take up to 10 years. Sometimes bleeds; blood in the stool can be a sign of a polyp. Removed and inspected to determine if it is cancerous. Detected with a sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy.
Term
Positive feedback mechanism
Definition
Regulates the secretion of some hormones. Eventually something stops the positive feedback mechanism. Example: oxytocin causes uterine contractions, wchih cause release of more oxytocin. When the baby is delivered, the positive feedback mechanism is cancelled.
Term
Positron emission tomography (PET scan)
Definition
Produces a 3D image of the heart as blood flows through it. The patient receives an intravenous injection of a radioactive tracer that emits positrons which are picked up by the scanner. Used to diagnose heart diseases.
Term
Post-absorptive
Definition
Between meals. Energy stores mobilized to supply minimum primary fuel loads in the blood plasma.
Term
Post-concussive syndrome
Definition
After a concussion, such as from whiplash. Return to normal after 12 months. Physiological complexity is vulnerable during this time.
Term
Post-prandial state
Definition
3 - 6 hours following a meal. Macronutrients are absorbed in the small intestine. Rise in amino acids, fats, and glucose. Increase stimulates removal of blood glucose, inhibits glucose production. Incretins enhance the effect of insulin. The stomach releases gastrin. The small intestine releases cholecystokining. These factors and leptin cause a decrease in appetite. Ghrelin production is reduced.
Term
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Definition
Between 12% and 35% of people who witnessed the 9/11 tragedy suffered from it a year later.
Term
Posterior lobe
Definition
The smaller lobe of the pituitary gland; the size of the head of a pin. Connected to the hypothalamus by nerves. Does not produce any hormones; hormones are delivered by nerve cells, and the posterior lobe secretes them. Secretes ADH and OT.
Term
Prebiotic fibres
Definition
Fibres that cannot be digested by humans. Bacteria in the colon digest them. Example: cellulose, inulin.
Term
Precapillary sphincter
Definition
Rings of smooth muscle in arterioles that regulate blood flow into arteries.
Term
Precipitation
Definition
The P in PLAN. A way that antibodies defend agains antigens. Antigen-antibody binding causes antigens to clump and precipitate out of solution, making antigens easier to be engulfed by phagocytosis.
Term
Predictive range
Definition
aka Healthy range. A predictable range over which a variable will vary in allostasis. Challenges are deviations out of this range.
Term
Premolar
Definition
Teeth that grind food. There are eight.
Term
Pressure
Definition
A source of stress. When we feel forced to speed up, slow down, intensify, or shift the direction of our behaviours. May be based on personal goals or from outside influences.
Term
Primary fuels
Definition
Come from food. Digestion and absorption. Sugars, fats, and proteins.
Term
Primary response
Definition
The first time an antigen invades. There is no immunity developed. Response is limited and slow.
Term
Probiotics
Definition
Microbes consumed intentionally to repopulate microbes of the GI tract.
Term
Progesterone
Definition
A hormone secreted by the ovaries. Lipid-soluble. Develops female secondary sex characteristics.
Term
Prolactin (PRL)
Definition
A hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. In women it stimulates the breasts to produce milk. It interferes with estrogen, disrupting the menstrual cycles of lactating women. In men it plays a role in the production of sperm cells. Excess secretion (caused by a tumor in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland) can cause infertility and/or milk production in women when birth has not occurred.
Term
Prostaglandins
Definition
A local signal molecule. Lipids. Continuously released by the plasma membranes of most cells. Different cells release different types. There are at least 16 different prostaglandins in humans. Have diverse effects. Influence blood clotting, body temperature, diameter of airways to lungs, inflammatory response, the reproductive system, and menstrual cramps. Inhibited by anti-inflammatory drugs, aspirin, and ibuprofen. Prostaglandins in semen may cause uterus to contract.
Term
Protein storage
Definition
In the liver, blood proteins, and muscles. Most tissues increase protein synthesis. Protein is not called to for energy unless absolutely necessary. In a long fast, tissue proteins can be broken down into amino acids and released in the blood. The liver then converts them into glucose. Protein in the GI tract and muscles waste away while proteins in the heart and brain are protected until the latest stages of starvation. 22% of energy stored.
Term
Proteoglycans
Definition
A component of cartilage. Provide compressive strength and regulate matrix water content. Composed of subunits of glycosaminoglycans, chondroitin-4-sulfate, chondroitin-6-sulfate, and keratin sulfate.
Term
Prothrombin
Definition
A plasma protein that is converted into thrombin by prothrombin activator. Produced in the liver. Vitamin K is necessary for its production.
Term
Prothrombin activator
Definition
A plasma protein that is activated by clotting factors. Converts prothrombin into thrombin.
Term
Pro-oncogene
Definition
A gene which can be an oncogene under certain circumstances.
Term
Psychological age
Definition
A person's adaptive capacities and intelligence. Awareness of individual capacities, self-efficacy, and ability to adapt to situations.
Term
Psychological hardiness
Definition
A characteristic that helps some people cope with self-imposed stresses associated with type A personalities.
Term
Psychological stress
Definition
Results in an initial increase in core body temperature, but then it lowers to a point just above normal set point. Skin temperature decreases. Blood pressure increases. Fasting blood glucose increases, but this is variable. Saliva production may change. Polygraph machines (lie detectors) measure these changes.
Term
Pulmonary arteries
Definition
The arteries which deliver blood from the heart to the lungs. The only arteries that carry deoxygenated blood. Receive blood from the pulmonary trunk. Part of the pulmonary circuit.
Term
Pulmonary circuit
Definition
The circuit of the cardiovascular system pumped by the right side of the heart. Drives gas exchange in the lungs. The pulmonary arteries deliver deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, where it is oxygenated and returned to the heart by the pulmonary veins.
Term
Pulmonary semilunar valve
Definition
The semilunar valve which ensures no backflow from the pulmonary trunk into the right ventricle.
Term
Pulmonary trunk
Definition
An artery which receives blood from the right ventricle through the pulmonary semilunar valve and diverges into the left and right pulmonary arteries. Part of the pulmonary circuit.
Term
Pulmonary veins
Definition
The veins that deliver blood from the lungs to the heart. The only veins that carry oxygenated blood. Enter the heart at the left atrium. Part of the pulmonary circuit.
Term
Pulp cavity
Definition
The inner layer of the crown of a tooth. Contains blood vessels and nerves. Connects to the body through the root canal.
Term
Pulses
Definition
Surges in blood pressure caused by heart contractions. The elastic fibres in arteries help them tolerate pulses. Or one wave of change in homeostasis.
Term
Pukinje fibres
Definition
A series of muscle fibres branching off of the arterioventricular bundle that distribute the signal from the AV and SA nodes to the walls of the ventricles, causing them to contract during ventricular systole.
Term
Pyloric sphincter
Definition
The sphincter that separates the stomach and the small intestine. Involuntary control by the autonomic nervous system.
Term
Pyrogen
Definition

"Fire producer"

Raises the "thermostat" of the hypothalamus. Secreted during a fever. Some bacterial toxins can act as pyrogens.

Term
QRS wave
Definition
A wave of heart activity detected by an electrocardiogram. Generated by the spread of the SA node signal through the ventricles, and ventricle contraction.
Term
Quorum sensing
Definition
How bacteria communicate with one another. A chemical language. Receptors take a census of the poulations of bacteria in environment.
Term
Radial arteries
Definition
The artery which delivers blood to the hands.
Term
Radial veins
Definition
The veins that carry blood away from the hands.
Term
Radionuclide imaging
Definition
Radionuclides are injected into the bloodstream. Used to diagnose heart diseases.
Term
Reactive oxygen species (ROS)
Definition
Superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide, et cetera. Can induce mutations in the mitochondrial DNA, which can accelerate aging.
Term
Reactive range
Definition
The range of homeostatic distrubances that the body can recover from.
Term
Reactive scope
Definition

Predictive range + Reactive range

 

Developed by Romerao, Dickens, and Cyr, and modified by McEwen and Wingfield. A model for integrating homeostasis and allostasis. A property of the CCN. The total healthy scope an individual can react to. Outside of this scope, may or may not return to homeostasis; pathology and death can occur. The scope can narrow due to stress, or damage to ability to cope with stress. Duration of this narrowing can be permanent.

Term
Reactivity hypothesis
Definition
Stress can cause alterations in physiological responses in some people more than others. Proposed by Krantz and Manuck in 1984. Genetic environmental factors combine to influence a person's individual vulnerability to physiolgoical response following stress and negative emotions.
Term
Receptor
Definition
A protein on a target cell which allows it to react to specific hormones. Includes first messenger.
Term
Rectum
Definition
The second segment of the large intestine. Passageway for feces. Stretching stimulates the defecation reflex.
Term
Red blood cells (RBC)
Definition

aka Erythrocytes

"Red cell"

Originate from erythroblasts. 2 million are produced in a second. The most abundant formed element; 4 - 6 million per mm3 of blood. Transport oxygen from the lungs to all cells in the body, and carry some carbon dioxide away. Lacks a nucleus. A biconcave disk; this shape maximizes surface area for gas exchange. Flexible; able to squeeze through capillaries. Contains about 280 million hemoglobin molecules. Its lack of a nucleus makes protein repair impossible. Old damaged red blood cells are removed in the liver and spleen and consumed by macrophages.

Term
Red bone marrow
Definition
A lymphoid organ. A porous, sponge-like connective tisssue inside bones that supports fat cells. Foun in the ends of long bones, ribs, sternum, and vertebrae. Stem cells divide and differentiate into erythroblasts, myelobasts, monoblasts, lymphoblasts, or megakaryoblasts, which mature into the formed elements of blood.
Term
Redness
Definition
One of the four cardinal signs of inflammation. Histamine stimulates blood vessels to dilate in the damaged area. Blood flow is increased, delivering phagocytes, blood-clotting proteins, and defensive proteins, and washing away dead cells and toxins produced by invading microbes.
Term
Referred pain
Definition
When the sensation of pain is perceieved to be in a place other than actual damaged tissues. Occurs when there is damage to internal organs; specific regions of the skin sense pain when specific internal organs are damaged. Sensory neurons from the internal organ enter the spinal cord via the same spinal nerve as sensory neurons from their corresponding skin region.
Term
Relative risk
Definition
A mseasure of the strength of the relationship between risk factor and particular cancer.
Term
Releasing hormones
Definition
Hormones secreted by the hypothalamus that cause the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland to release hormones. Includes GHRH.
Term
REM sleep
Definition

Rapid eye movement

Improves emotional memories. Dreams and nightmares occur.

Term
Renal arteries
Definition
The arteries that deliver blood to the kidneys.
Term
Renal veins
Definition
The veins that carry blood away from kidneys.
Term
Reservatrol
Definition
Part of the stilbene family of polyphenols. Found in red wine. An anti-aging compound.
Term
Resident B-cells
Definition
Support and defense non-parenchymal cells of lymphoid origin.
Term
Resident T-cells
Definition
Support and defense non-parenchymal cells of lympoid origin.
Term
Resistance
Definition
The second stage of GAS. Begins immediately after alarm kicks in. Adaptation resources are mobilized. The endocrine system is involved.
Term
Resistin
Definition
An inflammatory compound.
Term
Respiration
Definition
Fuel + O2 + Pi + ADP → CO2 + H2O + ATP + heat
Term
Respiratory tract
Definition
One of the body's first lines of defense against pathogens. Sticky mucous traps pathogens and constantly beating cilia sweep away mucous, which is swallowed, coughed, or sneezed.
Term
Rh factor
Definition
A blood type marker that is either present or not. Discovered in Rhesus monkeys. Types include Rh positive and Rh negative. Antibodies for Rh factor are only produced in Rh negative people, if they have been exposed to Rh positive blood in the past.
Term
Rh negative (Rh-)
Definition
A blood type where Rh factor is not present on red blood cells. Rh factor antibodies are produced only if the person has had contact with Rh+ blood in the past, such as in a mismatched blood transfusion, or damaged blood vessel during miscarriage or delivery of an Rh+ child. Can lead to hemolytic disease of the newborn. Second exposure to Rh+ blood can ressult in agglutination. Prevented with RhoGAM.
Term
Rh positive (Rh+)
Definition
A blood type where the Rh factor is present on red blood cells. Rh factor antibodies are never produced.
Term
Rheumatic fever
Definition
An autoimmune disorder. When antibodies released to fight an antigen happen to also attack similar molecuels in the body, such as molecules in the valves of the heart or joints. Can cause stenosis.
Term
Rheumatic heart disease
Definition
Caused by a streptococcal infection of the throat which leads to the immune system attacking heart cells.
Term
RhoGAM
Definition
A drug which kills Rh+ blood cells, preventing an Rh- person from producing Rh factor antibodies. Administered to Rh- mothers pregnat with Rh+ children in the seventh month of pregnancy and after delivery. Prevents hemolytic disease of the newborn.
Term
Righ atrium
Definition
Receives blood from the inferior vena cava and superior vena cava. Connects to the right ventricle via the tricuspid valve.
Term
Right half of the heart
Definition
Pumps deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary circuit. Includes the right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, and pulmonary semilunar valve.
Term
Right lymphatic duct
Definition
A lymphoid organ. Returns lymph from the upper part of the body to the blood.
Term
Right ventricle
Definition
Receives blood from the right atrium through the tricuspid valve, and pumps it into the pulmonary trunk through the pulmonary semilunar valve.
Term
Root
Definition
The part of a tooth below the gum line. Contains the root canal. Covered with cementum.
Term
Root canal
Definition
A tiny tunnel through which blood vessels and nerves of the pulp cavity of a tooth connect to the body.
Term
Roux-en Y procedure
Definition
A gastric bypass surgery for weight loss. A small pouch is created in the upper stomach and attached directly to the small intestine, bypassing most of the stomach and duodenum. Results in 40% - 50% weight loss within a year.
Term
Ruffini corpuscle
Definition
A type of encapsulated nerve ending that senses continuous pressure.
Term
Sacromere
Definition
Repeating actin and myosin myofibrils in skeletal muscles. Contract when stimulated.
Term
Saliva
Definition
One of the body's first lines of defense against pathogens. Produced by salivary glands. Washes microbes from the teeth and mucous membranes of the mouth. Moistens food and binds food particles together to form a bolus. Contains lysozome and salivary amylase.
Term
Salivary amylase
Definition
An enzyme in saliva. Digests polysaccharides into shorter molecules.
Term
Salivary glands
Definition
Accessory organs. There are three pairs: sublingual, submandibular, and parotid. Release saliva into the mouth. Release of saliva is controlled by neural control by the thought, smell, or taste of food.
Term
Salty
Definition
A taste. NaCl.
Term
Sarcoma
Definition
Cancer in mesodermal tissues. Bone and muscle. Metastasizes through the blood. Less common, but more virulent than carcinomas. Forms solid tumours.
Term
Sarcopenia
Definition
Ange-related decline in quality and quantity of skeletal muscle. Prevented with physical activity and weight lifting. There is no cure.
Term
Sciatica
Definition
A referred pain perceived in the leg. A type of low back pain. Caused by a disk problem that puts pressure on nerves. Constant pain, which can improve when lying down. Treated with medication.
Term
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
Definition
A condition caused by over-secretion of melatonin. A form of depression associated with winter, when days are short and the pineal gland over-produces melatonin due to the darkness. Lethargy, long periods of sleep, low spirits, craving of carbohydrates. Occurs between October and April. 75% of people with SAD are female. Treatments include bright lights for an hour each day, inhibiting melatonin production.
Term
Second line of defense
Definition
A nonspecific defense of the local support and defense system. When the first lines of defense are penetrated. Attacks any foreign organism, molecule, or cancer inside the body. Non-specific. Incldues defensive cells, defensive proteins, inflammation, and fever.
Term
Second messenger
Definition
Activated by first messenger when it binds to water-soluble hormone. Influences the activity of the cell.
Term
Secondary hypertension
Definition
Hypertension that can be attributed to a specific factor such as kidney disease, obesity, or tumours in the adrenal glands.
Term
Secondary response
Definition
The second time an antigen invades, memory cells cause the response to be much faster and more efficient. It takes 2 - 3 days, compared to the 7 - 14 days it takes during the first invasion.
Term
Secretin
Definition
A hormone released by the small intestine, triggered by the presence of chyme in the small intestine. Triggers release of sodium bicarbonate ions from the pancreas into the small intestine.
Term
Segmental contractions
Definition
Contractions of the muscularis layer of the GI tract that mix lumen contents and assist in absorption of digested food. Found in the small intestine. Movement in both directions.
Term
Self-efficacy
Definition
Belief in one's own skills and performance abilities. Based on past successes and failures. Low when the person believes that their performance is outside of their control. High self-efficacy can reduce stress.
Term
Semilunar valve
Definition
Valves that prevent backflow from arteries into the ventricles of the heart. Include pulmonary semilunar valve and aortic semilunar valve. Cusps are attached to the inner walls of arteries. When pressure in arteries is greater than that in the ventricle, they fill with blood, preventing backflow. When they close it makes the "dub" sound in a heartbeat.
Term
Sensory
Definition
An innervation component of the lymphatic system.
Term
Sensory adaptation
Definition
After repeated exposure to a stimulus, sensory receptors may cease to send nerve impulses in response to the stimulus. Some sensory receptors cannot have sensory adaptation.
Term
Sensory neurons
Definition
A type of spinal nerve. Enter the spinal cord at the dorsal root. Cell bodies in the dorsal-root ganglion.
Term
Sensory receptors
Definition
Structures that respond to stimuli with a strength greater than the threshold level, by sending nerve impulses to the brain. The stronger the stimuli, the stronger the nerver impulse. Includes mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, pain receptors, muscle spindles, and Golgi tendon organs. Includes external and internal receptors. Nerve endings are free or encapsulated.
Term
Septum
Definition
A partition which separates the right half of the heart from the left half of the heart. Each half has an atrium and a ventricle.
Term
Serosa
Definition
The fourth layer of the GI tract. Below the muscularis layer. A thin layer of epithelial tissue supported by connective tissue wrapping around the GI tract, reducing friction with other abdominal organs.
Term
Set point
Definition
The balance point of homeostasis. Not a permanently fixed point. Can deviate based on time of day, month, year, lifestyle, and life history.
Term
Sickel-cell anemia
Definition
A type of hemolytic anemia caused by abnormal hemoglobin: hemoglobin S. Red blood cells have a deformed crescent shape when blood oxygen is low. Cells are fragile and rupture easily, clogging blood vessels and clotting.
Term
Sigmoidoscopy
Definition
A fibre-optic tube is snaked down the first third of the colon and screened for polyps.
Term
Simple goiter
Definition
Caused by iodine deficiency in the diet. TH levels drop, and the lack of iodine for TH production causes the thyroid gland to enlarge in an attempt to filter more iodine from the blood. Treated with iodine supplements and/or TH administration.
Term
Sinoatrial (SA) node
Definition

aka Pacemaker

A cluster of specialized cardiac muscle cells in the right atrium near the superior vena cava. Sets the tempo for heartbeats. Its signal causes both atria to contract during atrial systole. The signal reaches the AV node.

Term
Skeletal muscle
Definition
Its parenchymal cells are myocytes. Supports and contracts under stimulus, causing voluntary movement. Connects two bones via tendons across a joint. Composed of repeating muscle fibres which have actin and myosin myofibrils, making sacromeres. Stimulus causes calcium to release from the endoplasmic reticulum of the cells, allowing actin and myosin to interact, pulling the inner actin filaments toward each other in a sliding motion, shortening the sacromere. This causes a sudden requirement for energy, which is taken from stores of triglycerides and glycogen in the cells. Energy is released quickly without hormones or other factors.
Term
Skin
Definition
One of the body's first lines of defense against pathogens. Its parenchymal cells are keratinocytes. A physical barrier with an acidic pH that discourages growth of organisms. Sweat and oil kill bacteria. The layer of dead cells filled with keratin is waterproof and makes skin resistant to most toxins and enzymes. Continuously shed and replaced about a million cells every 40 minutes. As cells shed, they take microbes with them.
Term
Sleep
Definition
The body has four stages of SWS intermitted with REM sleep. People often do not get enough sleep.
Term
Slow-wave sleep (SWS)
Definition
The first stages of sleep. There are four SWS stages.
Term
Small bowel bacterial overgrowth syndrom (SBBOS)
Definition
A disorder of motility in the GI tract.
Term
Small intestine
Definition
A portion of the GI tract. An organ with some endocrine cells. Releases vasoactive intestinal peptide, secretin, and cholecystokinin when it has acidic chyme in it. Its parenchymal cells are enterocytes. A long tube where nutrients and water are absorbed. Maltase, sucrose, lactase, and aminopeptidase, are released; neural control triggered by presence of chyme, and hormonal control triggered by vasoactive intestinal peptide. Carbohydrate, protein, and fat digestion is completed. Has peristalsis. The mucosa has accordion-like folds, villi, and microvilli that increase surface area for absorption. Absorption is facilitated by active transport, facilitated diffusion, and simple diffusion. Monosacchardies, amino acids, water, ions, and vitamins enter blood capillaries. Micelles of fat enter cells and become chylomicron complexes before entering lacteals.
Term
Social age
Definition
A person's habits and roles relative to society's expectations.
Term
Social death
Definition
An irreversible situation in which a person is not treated as an active member of society.
Term
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
Definition
Invented by Holmes and Rahe in 1976. A measure of the amount of change in a person's life.
Term
Socioeconomic events
Definition
A source of stress. Inflation, unemployment, poverty.
Term
Somatic death
Definition
Death of an entire organism.
Term
Somatic nervous system
Definition
A portion of the peripheral nervous system. Carries sensory information about the world around us, resulting in conscious perception of light, sound, and touch. Controls voluntary movements.
Term
Somatostatin
Definition
A hormone secreted by delta cells in the pancreas and other digestive organs. Controls the secretion of glucagon and insulin.
Term
Sour
Definition
A taste. HCl.
Term
Special senses
Definition
Provide information or perceiving and understanding the world. Vision, hearing, balance, gustation, and olfaction. Most special sense receptors are located in the head in specific structures.
Term
Sphincter
Definition
Rings of muscles. Includes the upper esophageal sphincter, lower esophageal sphincter, pyloric sphincter, ileocecal valve, internal anal sphincter, and external anal sphincter.
Term
Sphygmomanometer
Definition
A device that measures blood pressure. An inflatable cuff that wraps around the upper arm and measures pressure inside the cuff.
Term
Spinal cord injury
Definition
Loss or reduction of sensation and/or paralysis below the point of injury. Extent and location of injury determine the severity and how long symptoms last. New research into treatment includes use of nerve growth factors, stem cells, and robot limbs.
Term
Spinal nerves
Definition
There are 31 pairs, each of which originates in the spinal cord and services a specific region of the body; one on the left side and one on the right. Dorsal and ventral roots enter through an opening between vertebrae. Includes sensory neurons and motor neurons.
Term
Spirilla
Definition
A classification of bacteria. Spiral shaped. The least numerous type of bacteria.
Term
Spleen
Definition
The largest lymphoid organ. Lymphocytes are produced. Removes old red blood cells, platelets, debris, and microorganisms from the blood.
Term
Splenectomy
Definition
Removal of the spleen. The liver takes over the spleen's role. The spleen may partially grow back from tiny bits that are accidentally left behind.
Term
Sports drinks
Definition
A mixture of glucose and sodium. The sodium optimizes the absorption of water because water follows sodium in fluid absorption.
Term
Stages of death
Definition
Recognized by Kübler-Ross. Not evevryone follows these steps exactly. Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.
Term
Stem cell
Definition
Non-parenchymal cells that are included in the basic logic unit of hte local support and defense system. In the stem cell niche. In red bone marrow they divide and differentiate into erythroblasts, myeloblasts, monoblasts, lymphoblasts, or megakaroblasts that mature into the blood formed elements.
Term
Stenosis (cardivascular)
Definition
Narrowing of a valve in the heart. May be congenital, due to calcification, or scarring from rheumatic fever. Fatigue, shortness of breath, exerceise intolerance, heart failure, fluid buildup in the lungs, death. Treated with artificial or biological heart valves.
Term
Stenosis (spinal)
Definition
Narrowing of the spinal canal. When severe, nerves have difficulty keeping up with functions. Can cause neurogenic claudication.
Term
Stent
Definition
A metal mesh tube inserted into a coronary artery in an angioplasty. Prevents the artery from collapsing. Can trigger an inflammatory response. Some stents release sirolimus, which prevents cell division and formation of scar tissue.
Term
Steroids
Definition
Lipid-soluble hormones.
Term
Stimuli
Definition
Changes in the external or internal environment. The larger the change, the stronger the stimuli.
Term
Stimulants
Definition
A drug banned in-competition during sporting competitions.
Term
Stomach
Definition
An organ with some endocrine cells. A portion of the GI tract. A J-shaped muscular sac. Has an extra layer: the oblique layer. One of the body's first lines of defense against pathogens. Stores food, regulating release into the small intestine. It is expandable and is bound by the lower esophageal and pyloric sphincters. Liquefies food by mixing it with gastric juice, making chyme. Acid and proteases destroy pathogens. Chemical digestion of proteins. Gastric pits secrete mucous and gastric juice. Mucous protets the walls from digestion. Its walls are fully replaced every 3 days. Can absorb alcohol and Aspirin. Releases gastrin when it has food in it.
Term
Stored primary fuels
Definition
Some cells have the ability to store primary fuels.
Term
Stress
Definition
Our mental and physical responses to the demands placed on us. Externally imposed factors that threaten or makes demands on our minds and bodies. Increases likelihood for many illnesses.
Term
Stressor
Definition
Any physical, social, or mental event or condition that forces our minds and bodies to react or adjust.
Term
Stroke
Definition

aka Cerebrovascular accident

Blockage of a blood vessel that nourishes the brain. Caused by a thrombus, embolus, aneurysm, or hemorrhage in the blood vessels of the meninges. Death of nerve cells caused by interruption of blood flow. Extent of mental and physical impairment depends on the region involved. On the left side of the brain it can cause loss of sensation and the ability to move on the right side of the body, and difficulty speaking. On the right side of the brain it can cause neglect syndrome. Risk factors include hypertension, heart disease, diabetes, smoking, obesity, and alcohol intake.

Term
Stroma
Definition
Non-parenchymal cells and extracellular matrix components (proteins, carbohydrate networks) in peripheral organs. Supports the functional portion of a gland or organ.
Term
Sublingual salivary glands
Definition
Salivary glands below the tongue.
Term
Submandibular salivary glands
Definition
Salivary glands below the jaw.
Term
Submucosa
Definition
The second layer of the GI tract. Below the mucosa layer. Connective tissue with blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves. Delivers blood to the digestive system and picks up products of digstion. Nerves of the submucousal plexus co-ordinate muscle contractions.
Term
Submucosal plexus
Definition
A part of the enteric nervous system found in the submucosa. Co-ordinate muscle contractions.
Term
Sucrose
Definition
An enzyme released by the small intestine. Digests sucrose into glucose and fructose.
Term
Sudden athletic death (SAD)
Definition
Heart failure due to pre-existing heart defects in athletes.
Term
Superior vena cava
Definition
A vein that carries blood from the uppor body to the heart. Enters the heart at the right atrium.
Term
Supressor T cells
Definition
Supress the activity of B and T cells after the antigen is successfully destroyed.
Term
Swallowing
Definition
Food is passed from the mouth to the esophagus. Consists of a voluntary stage where the tongue pushes the bolus towards the pharynx, followed by an involuntary phase. The esophagus opens, the soft palate prevents food from entering the nasal cavity, muscles contract, forcing the bolus into the esophagus, and the epiglottis prevents food from entering the respiratory system.
Term
Sweet
Definition
A taste. Sucrose.
Term
Swelling
Definition
One of the four cardinal signs of inflammation. Histamine stimulates blood capillaries to be more permeable. FLuid seepsinto tissues, bringing blood-clotting factors that wall off the region, protecting surrounding areas from injury and preventing excessive blood loss. Increases oxygen and nutrient supply to cells. Swelling can hamper movement if the area is a joint.
Term
Sympathetic
Definition
An innervation component of the lymphatic system.
Term
Sympathetic nervous system (SNS)
Definition
The portion of the ANS responsible for stimulating stress response during times of stress. Singals the release of hormones. Fight or flight. Controlled by the hypothalamus. Uses mostly norepinephrine. Acts as a unified whole; all sympathetic neurons are connected. Dilates pupils, increases heart rate and breathing rate, et cetera.
Term
Syncytium
Definition
Where all the cells are connected by gap junctions. Example: the heart. All that is needed to make the heart pump is to polarize the cells.
Term
Syngergistic
Definition
A hormone interaction. The effect of two hormones together is greater than the response to either hormone by itself. Example: epinephrine and glucagon cause more glucose to by released from the liver than glucagon alone.
Term
Synovium
Definition
A layer of tissue surrounding joints. Secretes synovial fluids that nourish and lubricate the joint.
Term
Systemic circuit
Definition
The circuit of the cardiovascular system pumped by the left side of the heart. Conducts blood through body tissues. The aorta delivers oxygenated blood to all capillaries of the body, where it is deoxygenated and returned to the heart through the inferior and superior vena cava.
Term
Systole
Definition
A stage of the cardiac cycle. Contraction of the heart. Consists of atrial systole and ventricular systole.
Term
Systolic pressure
Definition
Blood pressure during systole as blood is forced into arteries. The highest blood pressure in the cardiac cycle. A healthy systolic pressure is 110 - 120 mmHg.
Term
T cells
Definition

aka T lymphocytes

Lymphocytes that mature in the thymus glands. Distinguish between MHC marked cells and unmarked cells. Do not react to MHC marked cells. Involved in cell-mediated immune response. Include helper T cells, memory helper T cells, effector helper T cells, naive cytotoxic T cells, memory cytotoxic T cells, and effector cytotoxic T cells.

Term
T wave
Definition
A wave of heart activity detected by an electrocardiogram. Generated as ventricles relax and return to their original electrical state.
Term
Tachycardia
Definition
A form of arrhythmia. Abnormally fast heartbeat.
Term
Target cells
Definition
Cells that are affected by a hormone. Have specific receptors on their surfaces.
Term
Taste buds
Definition

aka Papillae

Extensions on the tongue with chemoreceptors which send flavour and smell information to the brain, stimulating salivary glands. There are five tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.

Term
Tears
Definition
One of the body's first lines of defense against pathogens. Wash away irritating substances and microbes. Contains lysosome.
Term
Technosis
Definition
A form of technostress where the person is so immersed in technology that they risk losing their own identity.
Term
Technostress
Definition
Stress generated by reliance on technological devices. A panicky feeling when they fail, and a state of near-constant stimulation. Can interact with other forms of stress, compounding.
Term
Teeth
Definition
Tear and crush food into smaller pieces. Eight incisors, four canines, eight premolars, and twelve molars. Has a crown and root.
Term
Temporal lobe
Definition
One of the lobes of the brain. Runs along the side of the brain under the frontal and parietal lobes. Deals with the sense of smell, taste, sound, and formation and storage of memories.
Term
Tension headache
Definition
The most common type of headache. In response to stress, we unconsciously contract the muscles of our head, face, and neck. A dull, steady ache like a tight band around the head.
Term
Testis
Definition
Male-only organs with some endocrine cells. There are two. Secretes lipid-soluble androgens.
Term
Testosterone
Definition
An androgene secreted by the testis and adrenal cortex. Lipid-soluble. Develops male secondary sex characteristics.
Term
Thalamus
Definition
A part of the brain. Located at the top of the brain stem, receives sensory and limbic information, processes it, and sends it to the cerebral cortex.
Term
Thanatology
Definition
The study of death and dying.
Term
Theory of aging 1
Definition

"Use it or lose it"

We use less of our mental and physical abilities as we age, and lose these abilities over time. Example: sarcopenia.

Term
Theory of aging 2
Definition

"It's in our genes"

Genetic variation in longevity genes influence lifespan. Studied by knocking out genes in test species and genetic studies of humans. Interleukin-6 may be a longevity gene. Mutations in mitochondria, caused by ROSs or mitockines accelerates aging.

Term
Theory of aging 3
Definition

"Rate of living"

Live fast, die young. Normal wear and tear of life, compounded by abuses to the system, results in accumulation of damage that is irreparable. Caloric restriction increases the lifespan of test species.

Term
Thermoreceptor
Definition
A type of sensory receptor. Detect changes in temperature. Specialized free nerve endings below the surface of the skin. There are different kinds that detect heat and cold. Widely distributed throughout the body. Numerous in the lips and mouth. Fast sensory adaptation.
Term
Thermoregulation
Definition
The homeostasis of temperature. Set point is around 37ºC, but deviates in a circadium rhythm. Depends on hormonal state, sleep cycle, life stage, time of year, and history of traumatic events.
Term
Thoracic duct
Definition
A lymphoid organ. Returns lymph from most of the body to the blood.
Term
Threat
Definition
The first step of an immune response. Antigen gets through the first two lines of defense in the body.
Term
Threshold level
Definition
The level of strength of a stimulus where sensory receptors begin to send nerve impulses to the brain.
Term
Thrombin
Definition
The converted form of prothrombin. Turns fibrinogen into fibrin.
Term
Thrombolysis
Definition
A treatment for cardiovascular diseases. An injection of an agent such as a tissue plasminogen activator, which dissolves blood clots, and restores some blood flow. used within three hours of a heart attack.
Term
Thrombus
Definition
A blood clot lodged in an unbroken blood vessel.
Term
Thymectomy
Definition
Removal of the thymus gland. If done in childhood it could be very bad, but in adulthood there are only minor changes to the immune system.
Term
Thymopoietin
Definition
A hormone secreted by the thymus gland. Promotes the maturation of red blood cells, T lymphocytes, and T cells.
Term
Thymosin
Definition
A hormone secreted by the thymus gland. Promotes the maturation of red blood cells, T lymphocytes, and T cells.
Term
Thymus gland
Definition
An endocrine gland and lymphoid organ just behind the breastbone, over the heart. More prominent in infants and children because it decreases in size as we age. Secretes thymopoietin and thymosin which promote the maturation of red blood cells, T lymphocytes, and T cells. Red blood cell precursor cells travel to the thymus gland from bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland. Site of maturation of white blood cells and antigen presentation and formation of memory B cells.
Term
Thyroid gland
Definition
A shield-shaped, deep red endocrine gland near the front of the neck. Has follicles lined with follicular cells which produce TH. Other cells are parafollicular cells which produce CT. The parathyroid glands are four round masses on the back of the thyroid gland.
Term
Thyroid hormone (TH)
Definition
Produced by follicular cells in the thyroid gland. Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Iodine is needed for its synthesis. Regulates metabolism, heat production, and blood pressure. Promotes development and function of nervous, muscular, skeletal, and reproductive systems. Nearly all cells in the body are target cells. Has broad effects. Release is controlled by TSH. Problems with TH secretion can cause simple goiter, cretinism, myxedema, and Grave's disease.
Term
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Definition
A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. A tropic hormone. Stimulates the synthesis and release of TH from the thyroid gland.
Term
Tongue
Definition
A skeletal muscle with taste buds. Critical to speech and the manipulation of food. Sends information on taste to the brain. With teeth and saliva it forms a bolus of food and pushes it to the pharynx for swallowing. Does not have taste regions.
Term
Tonsillectomy
Definition
Removal of the tonsils. Does not alter body function by much. Tonsils are removed if they are chronically swollen or irritated. Other organs adapt to take on its role.
Term
Tonsils
Definition
A lymphoid organ. Protects the throat from bacteria or foreign agents. Forms a ring around the entrance to the throat. Protects against disease-causing organisms that may be inhaled or swallowed. Storage and maturation of white blood cells.
Term
Toxic core
Definition
Fills people with Type A personalities with anger, distrust, and cynicism.
Term
Toxicology
Definition
The interaction of pesticide exposure and human health.
Term
Transient ischemic attack
Definition
Mild stroke.
Term
Transverse colon
Definition
The second segment of the colon.
Term
Tricuspid valve
Definition
Right atrioventricular valve. The AV valve between the right atrium and right ventricle. Has three cusps.
Term
Triglyceride
Definition
A glycerol with three fatty acids. The type of fat we normally consume. Levels higher than 2.3 mM in the blood is a risk of cardiovascular disease.
Term
Tropic hormone
Definition
A hormone produced by an endocrine gland that influences another endocrine gland. Includes TSH and ACTH.
Term
Trypsin
Definition
A digestive enzyme released by the pancreas. Digests protein and polypeptides into smaller fragments.
Term
Tubule epithelial cell
Definition
The parenchymal cells of the kidneys.
Term
Tumour
Definition
A neoplasmic mass that grows more rapidly than surrounding tissues. Can be malignant or benign.
Term
Tumour necrosis factor
Definition
An inflammatory compound.
Term
Type 1 diabetes
Definition

aka Insulin-dependent diabetes

aka Juvenile-onset diabetes

A form of diabetes mellitus that accounts for 5% - 10% cases of diabetes. Develops in people younger than age 25. An auto-immune disorder where the immune system attacks beta cells in the pancreas, so the body cnanot produce insulin. Nausea, vomiting, thirst, excessive urine production. Treatment involved daily injections of insulin or an insulin pump, exercise, careful monitoring of the diet and blood glucose levels. Cannot be prevented or delayed. Risk factors are genetic, autoimmune, and environmental.

Term
Type 2 diabetes
Definition

aka Non-insulin-dependent diabetes

aka Adult-onset diabetes

A form of diabetes mellitus that acounts for 90% - 95% of cases of diabetes. Usually develops after age 40, but can appear in younger people. Caused by a decreased sensitivity to insulin. Many people with type 2 diabetes are overweight. Reults from an interaction between fatty acids, obesity, insulin resistance, and  failure of the pancreas to compensate for insulin resistance. Insulin has a decreased ability to control blood glucose because tissues are less sensitive to it. Insulin can no longer supress liver glucose production or stimulate glucose uptake. Hyperglycemai results. Treatment invoves dietary restriction, exercise, and weight loss. 40% of people with type 2 diabetes need insulin injections. Can be prevented and/or delayed. Risk factors include obesity, high blood pressure, family history, and gestation diabetes.

Term
Type A Behaviour and Your Heart
Definition
A book by Friedman and Rosenman. Discusses coronary disease prone personality. Describes three personalities: Type A, B, and C.
Term
Type A blood
Definition
Blood with only A antigen on red blood cells. There are anti-B antibodies in the blood plasma. May receive blood transfusions of type A and O.
Term
Type A personality
Definition
Hard-driving, competitive, anxious, time-driven, impatient, angry, and perfectionistic. More prone to heart attacks and heart disease. Have a toxic core. Personality can be controlled and changed.
Term
Type AB blood
Definition
Blood with both A antigen and B antigen on red blood cells. There are neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies in the blood plasma. May receive blood transfusions of any type of blood: A, AB, B, or O.
Term
Type B blood
Definition
Blood with only B antigen on red blood cells. There are anti-A antibodies in the blood plasma. May receive transfusions of type B and O.
Term
Type B personality
Definition
Relaxed, non-competitive.
Term
Type C personality
Definition
Thrive in stress-filled environments. Have good health while displaying type A patterns of behaviour. Psychologically hardy. Take control of actions and accept responsibility for their own behaviours. Turn down matters that are not personally important to them. Make healthful lifestyle choices.
Term
Type O blood
Definition
Blood with neither A antigen nor B antigen on red blood cells. There are both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the blood plasma. May receive blood transfusions of type O.
Term
Ulcerative colitis (UC)
Definition
A form of IBD. Inflammation of the lower colon.
Term
Ultrafast computer tomography (CT)
Definition
A faster form of X-ray. Used to diagnose heart diseases.
Term
Umami
Definition

aka Savory

A taste. L-threonine.

Term
Upper esophageal sphincter
Definition
The sphincter separating the mouth and esophagus. Voluntary control by the somatic nervous system.
Term
Urinary incontinence
Definition
Inability to control urination.
Term
Uterus
Definition
Female-only part of the endocrine system. Contains the placenta when pregnant.
Term
Vaccination
Definition

aka Immunization

An injection of a harmless form of an antigen, stimulating active immunity. Genetically modified bacteria may be used to produce vaccinations. Second vaccinations may be needed later on in life. Vaccinations protect against many diseases and save millions of lives. The risk of reacting badly to a vaccination is much lower than ther isk of the disease it prevents.

Term
Vagina
Definition
One of the body's first lines of defense against pathogens. Beneficial bacteria create an acidic environment that discourages the growth of pathogens.
Term
Valves
Definition
Veins have valves that prevent backflow of blood. Pockets of connective tissue extending into the vein.
Term
Varicose veins
Definition
A disorder of the veins. Abnormal structure of the vein wall. A cosmetic issue, not dangerous.
Term
Vasoactive intestinal peptide
Definition
A hormone released by the small intestine, triggered by chyme. Increases release of enzymes into the small intestine.
Term
Vasoconstriction
Definition
Muscles around an artery contract, decreasing the diameter of the artery. Occurs in arterioles, and small to medium sized arteries. Regulates distribution of blood.
Term
Vasodilation
Definition
Muscles around an artery relax, increasing the diameter of the artery. Occurs in arterioles, and small to medium sized arteries. Regulates distribution of blood.
Term
Vein
Definition
A blood vessel. Brings blood from capillaries to the heart. Drawn in blue. Blood is deoxygenated, except for the pulmonary veins. Capillaries merge to form venules, which merge into veins. Lower pressure, thinner walls, and larger lumens than arteries. Effected by varicose veins and deep vein thrombosis. Up to 65% of blood is in veins at any one point. Blood is moved without assistance of heart pulses: valves, skeletal muscle contractions, and the pressure changes caused by breathing drives blood flow. Includes jugular vein, superior vena cava, pulmonary vein, inferior vena cava, renal veins, iliac vein, radial veins, and femoral veins.
Term
Ventral root
Definition
Where motor neurons enter the spinal cord on the ventral side.
Term
Ventricle
Definition
The lower chambers of the heart. There are two; the left and right. Larger than atria, with thicker, more muscular walls. Atria connet to ventircles via AV valves, and blood exits ventricles through semilunar valves.
Term
Ventricular fibrillation
Definition
Severe arrhythmia. When the heart's conductance system fails and cardiac muscles contract independently and out of sync with each other. Theheart is un-co-ordinated and becomes useless. Circulation stops. Death occurs shortly afterwards unless an effective heartbeat is reastored quickly, such as from an electric shock from an implantable defribillator. Can be prevented with an artifical pacemaker.
Term
Ventricular systole
Definition
The second stage of systole in the cardiac cycle. Both ventricles contract, forcing blood into the pulmonary trunk and aorta. Signalled by the AV node via the atrioventricular bundle and Purkinje fibres.
Term
Venules
Definition
Narrower veins coming from capillaries. Have valves. The main site of lymphocytes crossing from blood into lymph nodes.
Term
Vibrio fischeri
Definition
A species of bactera that produce bioluminescence when in a culture with other bacteria. Live inside the Hawaiian bobtail squid, which uses the light to counteract their own shadow as a stealth technique
Term
Villi
Definition
Finger-like projections on the inner surface of the mucosa layer of the small intestine. Each villi contains a lacteal and blood capillary. Its surface has microvilli forming the brush border. Increase surface area for absorption.
Term
Visceral fat
Definition
Adipose tissue surrounding internal organs. More metabolically active than adipose tissue on the periphery of the body.
Term
Vitamin
Definition
A nutrient.
Term
Vitamin B12
Definition
A vitamin that is necessary for red blood cell production. Its uptake is aided by intrinsic factor. An inability to uptake vitamin B12 can result in pernicious anemia.
Term
Vitamin K
Definition
A vitamin that is necessary for the production of blood clotting agents including prothrombin. Deficiency can hamper blood clotting. Found in leafy greens, tomatoes, and vegetable oils. Produced by bacteria living in intestines. Antibiotic treatments can lead to vitamin K deficiencies.
Term
Vomitting
Definition
A method of the GI tract for expelling noxious sybstances.
Term
Walkerton, ON
Definition
In May 2000 about 5000 people in the town of Walkerton drank water contaminated with E. coli, resulting in 2300 causes of gastrointestinal illness, 27 cases of HUS, and 7 deaths.
Term
Warfarin
Definition
A powerful blood thinner used to treat coagulation disorders. Can be used as rat poison.
Term
Water
Definition
A nutrient.
Term
Water-soluble hormones
Definition
Includes proteins and peptide hormones. Cannot pass through the plasma membrane. Binds to the first messenger, which activates the second messenger in the cytoplasm.
Term
Whiplash
Definition
A traumatic brain injury. Can cause post-concussion syndrome.
Term
White blood cell (WBC)
Definition

aka Leukocyte

"White cell"

Removes wastes, toxins, and damaged/abnormal cells. Fights diseases. Increases in numbers when there is an infection; high WBC counts is indicative of an infection. May leave the bloodstream by squeezing between neighboring cells of blood vessels to reach the area of infection, damage or inflammation. Attracted by chemicals released by microbes or damaged cells. May engulf cells through phagocytosis. Includes granulocytes and agranulocytes.

Term
White blood cell deficiency
Definition
A disorder of the circulatory system. An immune deficiency. Includes X-SCID and HIV-AIDS.
Term
White matter
Definition
A component of the spinal cord.
Term
Withdrawal of forces
Definition
The eighth step in the immune response. When antigens are destroyed, suppressor T cells suppress activity of B and T cells.
Term
World Anti-Doping Agency
Definition
A company that tests athletes for banned substances. The logo is a green equal sign on a black background, to symbolize equality and fairness.
Term
X-SID
Definition

"Bubble boy"

A genetic immune disorder causing mutations early on in the stem cell system. A white blood cell deficiency. There is little ability to fight infection. The person must be kept in a sterilized environment. May be treated with gene therapy.

Term
Xenotransplantation
Definition
An inter-species organ transplant. Includes biological heart valve replacements from pigs into humans. Requires immunosuppression therapy.
Term
Xerostomia
Definition
A disorder of secretion in the GI tract.
Term
Young-old
Definition
Aged 65 - 74 years.
Term
Zeitgebers
Definition
Cues from the environment that set central clocks. Synchronize activities of the physiome. Example: sunlight, moonlight, and eating. Detected by sensory organs sending signals to visual processing centres in the brain.
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