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Biological Anthropology Exam 1
Chapters 1-4
142
Anthropology
Undergraduate 4
02/22/2010

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Term
anthropology
Definition
science of human cultural and biological variation and evolution
Term
culture
Definition
behavior that is shared, learned and socially transmitted
Term
biocultural approach
Definition
method of studying humans that looks at the interaction between biology and culture in evolutionary adaptation
Term
evolution
Definition
changes in living organisms over generations
Term
adaptation
Definition
process of successful interaction between a population and an environment, cultural or biological traits that offer an advantage in a given environment
Term
variation
Definition
differences among organisms or populations
Term
evidence for evolution
Definition
fossil record, genetics, microbiology, morphology, physiological comparisons, DNA research, common ancestry
Term
natural selection
Definition
mechanisms for evolutionary change favoring the survival and reproduction of some organisms over others because of their biological characteristics
Term
creationism
Definition
diversity in organisms due to intelligent design, effort to teach non-science concepts in science course
Term
Scopes trial
Definition
ruled evolution should be taught in schools
Term
Ernst Mayr
Definition
essentialism as retarding concept, cognitive simplification, eidos, typological thinking, Scala Naturae
Term
Scala Naturae
Definition
great chain of being, medieval conception, static view of nature influenced by nature, closed-ended hierarchy, no change possible, no evolution/extinction, essence same, position eternal
Term
Enlightenment
Definition
Descartes, Newton
reason, logic, systematic thinking in time of social revolution
faith that reason can rework human situation, evolutionary ideas flourished
Term
uniformitarianism
Definition
Charles Lyell, same processes in past and present, gradual change, no catastrophes, idea that Earth is old
Term
Carolus Linnaeus
Definition
father of taxonomy, binomial nomenclature, humans/apes in same order, concept of unchanging species, ordering God's creatures
Term
George Cuvier
Definition
father of comparative anatomy and vertebrate paleontology, catastrophism, against evolution, no common origin, no natural hierarchy
Term
Comte de Buffon
Definition
Histoire Naturelle, evolutionary concepts: common ancestor, Earth is old, breeding experiments, more offspring than can survive
later changed mind to spontaneous species appearance
Term
Jean Lamarck
Definition
evolution of acquired characteristics, use and disuse, linear theory, no common ancestor, spontaneous evolution
Term
August Weisman
Definition
germ plasma theory, reproductive structures separate from body cells
Term
Erasmus Darwin
Definition
zoonomia treatise on evolution, old Earth, noted adaptations, inheritance of acquired characteristics
Term
Thomas Malthus
Definition
principle of population, can grow rapidly if unrestrained, produce more offspring than can survive
Term
Charles Darwin
Definition
Origin of Species (Wallace had same idea, published together)
1. evolution
2. common descent
3. multiplication of species (branching via geographic isolation)
4. gradualism (evolution as a gradual process)
5. natural selection (evolutionary mechanism)
Term
Darwinism
Definition
Fisher, Haldane and Wright revitalized theory
evolutionary synthesis: reinforced by Mendel's laws of genetics, genes as hereditary variations, populations are genetically variable, selection alters the population, adaptive differences between geographical populations, allopatric speciation
Term
contemporary view of evolution
Definition
change in genetic composition of a population between generations via selection (Darwin) or random processes (non-Darwin), selection via differential mortality/reproduction, adaptations preserved by natural/sexual/artificial selection, fitness = individuals of high fertility with offspring to adulthood
Term
Social Darwinism
Definition
Spencer, survival of the fittest
Term
basic genetics
Definition
sense strand (5'->3') transcribed
AT: 2 bonds, CG: 3 bonds
humans: 23 chromosome pairs (22 auto, 1 sex)
chromosomes uncoiled into chromatin when not dividing, thicken in replication
# chromosomes does not signify complexity
prokaryotes have no introns
Term
types of genes
Definition
1. protein-coding
2. RNA specifying (no proteins)
3. regulatory genes (untranscribed, highly conserved, turn on/off)
Term
features of protein-coding genes
Definition
flanking sequences
1. promoters: TATA, CAAT/GC controls initiation RNA binding to DNA
Term
central dogma
Definition
pre-mRNA edited (introns removed) to mRNA to amino acids to protein
Term
gametes
Definition
haploid, 23 unpaired chromosomes, important in evolution
Term
somatic cells
Definition
46 chromosomes in pairs, mutations not passed down, small role in evolution
Term
cell cycle
Definition
division and non-division
fast during embryogenesis, slow in adults, cycle consists of events between divisions
Term
mitosis
Definition
somatic cells
P: chromosomes shorten/thicken
M: align
A: separate
T: membrane reforms
C: split to 2 cells
Term
meiosis
Definition
P1->C1 same as mitosis but separate homologous chromosomes to 2 cells with 23 pairs of chromosomes each
split again in P2->C2 to 4 cells with 23 unpaired chromosomes each
Term
male meiosis
Definition
constant, creates 4 sperm, short post-reproductive life
Term
female meiosis
Definition
stops, 1 egg created, long post-reproductive life
Term
genetic sources of variation
Definition
crossing over
mutations
Term
crossing over
Definition
exchange between homologous chromosomes to create mosaic alleles
Term
mutations
Definition
main source of variation in germ line mutations, can be neutral/harmful /helpful (depends on environment)
1. point
2. frameshift
3. inversion
4. monosomy/polysomy
Term
classes of point mutations
Definition
substitutions
transitions (switch between purines or pyrimidines ie. A->G)
transversions (switch from purine to pyrimidine or vice versa ie: C->A)
Term
types of point mutations
Definition
synonymous: silent
missense: change AA
nonsense: insert premature stop codon
Term
codon
Definition
made of 3 bases
64 possible
61 code for AA, 3 for stop codon
20 AA = redundancy
Term
# base mutation effects
Definition
1st base: 96% nonsynonymous
2nd base: 100% nonsymonymous
3rd base: 70% synonymous (3rd base wobble, doesn't change AA)
Term
frameshift mutation
Definition
insertion, deletion
big change, all AA's different
Term
inversion mutation
Definition
180 degree rotation of 2+ base pairs
occur in hot spots (3rd position)
don't occur in highly conserved areas
Term
monosomy/trisomy
Definition
one chromosome copy/three chromosome copies
one X in women = Turner's syndrome (short/sterile)
Term
locus
Definition
physical location on chromosome, may represent a gene (coding region) or non-coding region
Term
allele
Definition
variant of a gene, variation at a locus
Term
phenotype
Definition
physical appearance due to genes and environment
Term
ABO blood group
Definition
encoded by 3 alleles on chromosome 18
A, B, AB or O
Term
codominance
Definition
simultaneous expression (ABO blood group, blood type AB)
Term
Mendelian genetics
Definition
Gregor Mendel
plant breeding
nature of genetic inheritance
before, thought genes blend in offspring
now, genes are independent units
Term
linkage
Definition
genes with close loci (same chromosome) usually transmitted together, complete linkage when always transmitted together (linkage disequilibrium), different chromosomes unlinked, never transmitted together = completely unlinked (linkage equilibrium)
Term
recombination (crossing over)
Definition
can break linkage of genes on same chromosome
Term
polygenic traits
Definition
many loci affect a single trait
complex diseases caused by many different genes (diabetes - 3)
height/skin color
Term
pleotropic traits
Definition
one locus affects many traits
melanin affects eyes/hair/skin
Term
simple traits
Definition
affected by one gene
Term
complex traits
Definition
affected by multiple genes/environment
more average values than extremes
height
Term
discrete traits
Definition
have finite number of phenotypes
presence/absence of a trait (cleft chin)
Term
driving processes of microevolution
Definition
1. mutation
2. natural selection
3. genetic drift
4. gene flow
Term
evolutionary significance of mutation
Definition
(re)introduce new alleles
rare on generational time scale
more variation
Term
natural selection
Definition
no new variation
changes likelihood of alleles passed down
drives evolution
conservative mechanism
nonrandom
decreases variation
nonrandom
deters evolution when deleterious mutations are selected against
strong in some genes, weak in others
humans: relaxed effects
Term
fitness
Definition
when high, pass more genetic information to next generation
correlated with adaptations
Term
genes with strong effects from natural selection
Definition
homeobox genes
position/body axes, embryonic development of whole body
strong because effects irreversible
Term
nonrandomness of natural selection
Definition
depends on reproduction/adaptations
order random mutations into adaptive coherent patterns
cumulative change not random
Term
genetic drift
Definition
random change in allele frequency between generations
larger populations have weaker effects
small populations can have alleles quickly go to fixation to low/no selection
Term
gene flow
Definition
introduces new genes to population
movement of genes from one population to another
via physical movement or visitors leaving genes behind as children
between 2 populations over time causes them to be more similar
weaker with greater geographic distance
Term
interaction of evolutionary forces
Definition
can act together or in opposition
historically contingent
no ultimate direction
change just narrows down potential pathways
Term
population genetics
Definition
study of total pattern of genetic variation of a population
Term
breeding population
Definition
proportion of population that chooses mates from within the group
depends on geographic/political boundaries, religion
Term
census population
Definition
actual total population
more inclusive than breeding population
includes children
uneven sex ratios
Term
monogamy
Definition
one male, one female
Term
polygamy
Definition
multiple mates
polyandry (1 female, multiple males)
polygyny (1 male, multiple females)
Term
effective population size
Definition
similar to breeding population but smaller
include sex ratios
fluctuating population size over time
Term
allele frequency
Definition
relative proportion of alleles in population
Term
genotype frequency
Definition
# specific genotype / total # individuals
frequencies must add to 1
Term
Hardy Weinberg equation
Definition
predicts future genotype frequencies
assumes random mating and no evolution (no selection, mutation, migration, drift)
p + q = 1
psquared + 2pq + qsquared = 1
if predictions differ from future population then assumption is wrong
Term
human evolution
Definition
nonrandom mating
inbreeding
assortive mating (basis of phenotype, either same/different)
lead to change in genotype, selection changes allele frequencies (buildup of deleterious alleles)
Term
p value
Definition
probability that chance alone could produce observation of deviation from Hardy-Weinberg
<0.05
Term
null hypothesis
Definition
no change observed
Term
selection against recessive alleles
Definition
when fitness of AA and Aa = 100% and aa = 0% (lethal)
due to differential mortality, fertility or reproduction
Term
fertility
Definition
production of offspring
Term
fecundity
Definition
ability to produce children
Term
selection for heterozygotes
Definition
balancing selection (sickle cell anemia)
ss = sickle cell, Ss = malaria resistance SS = normal but no malaria resistance
Term
selection of complex traits
Definition
look at average value and variation around it
look at low/high extremes
stabilizing/directional/diversifying
Term
stabilizing selection
Definition
selection against both extremes in a continuous trait
birth weight
Term
directional selection
Definition
selection against one extreme and for the other in a continuous trait
increase in brain size
Term
diversifying selection
Definition
selection for extremes and against the average
none in humans
Term
cause of sickle cell anemia
Definition
defect on one beta chain of hemoglobin
homozygous to have condition
substitution of glutamic acid for valine
single AA substitution results in production of less effective hemoglobin (Hb^s instead of Hb^A)
when oxygen requirements increase defective blood cells collapse/become sickle
Term
consequences of sickle cell anemia
Definition
impaired circulation (blocked capillaries, decreased lung capacity/musculoskeletal function, paralysis from brain damage)
RBC destruction = anemia (weakness, fatigue, poor physical development, impaired mental function, heart failure)
oxygen deprivation
collection of sickle cells in spleen (enlargement/fibrosis of spleen)
death w/o treatment
Term
sickle cell anemia and malaria resistance
Definition
homozygous recessive: always disadvantageous
homozygous dominant: advantageous when environment malaria-free
heterozygous: advantageous in environments with malaria (sickle cells don't provide suitable environment for parasite, lower parasite load)
Term
newt/garter snake relationship
Definition
newts evolve greater toxicity because eaten by garter snakes
snake resistance to toxin causes them to move more slowly, more susceptible to own predators, costly
Term
microbe/human relationship
Definition
microbes evolve to confer antibiotic resistance because ones that survive antibiotics are most resistant
caused by overuse/misuse of antibiotics
man-made problem
Term
water-borne pathogens
Definition
more harmful bacteria (cholera)
contaminated water in Peru from waste/food
Term
wild cats/FIV relationship
Definition
FIV in house cats
wild cats exposed too but developed resistance
ancestors decimated by virus but strongest survived with a mutation
Term
HIV mutation
Definition
mutation confers resistance
lack receptors to allow HIV to enter cells
more in caucasians than in blacks because saved people from bubonic plague
now survivors confer HIV resistance
Term
ant/fungus relationship
Definition
mutual symbiosis
maintain disease-free environment
mats of bacteria on some ants as antibiotics against mold
evolutionary arms race between bacteria/mold
Term
evolutionary significance of whales
Definition
show mammals developed on land but then whales moved to water
whale ear part found on wolf-like animal, have wolf ancestors, shown in transitional whales
evolution = tinkering
whale skeletons in Sahara, used to be a lagoon, Basilosaurus
found leg bone of ancient whale
whales move same way as land mammals
Term
important events in evolution
Definition
Cambrian explosion: diversity in mammals
Burgess Shale preserved sealife
Becaya: nerve cord, precursor to vertebrates
Hox genes create segmentation, all animals have same set from common ancestor to create body plan
monkeys turned to humans when left trees, became bipedals
Term
founder effect
Definition
type of genetic drift caused by formation of new population by a small number of individuals, marked deviations in allele frequencies from original population
Term
species
Definition
basic life classification, natural unit
based on appearance, behavior, ecology, genetics
taxonomists look at morphology
Term
cryptic species
Definition
can't be distinguished by morphology, hybrid zone, subspecies/races on their way to speciation
Term
macroevolution
Definition
generation of new species from cumulative changes over long period of time
genetics: longterm patterns of change over many generations
extinction as strongest force
Term
species concept
Definition
simultaneously static (naturalist -> field observations) and dynamic (paleontologists -> fossil records)
Term
biological species
Definition
same species, breed, produce fertile offspring
Term
recognition species
Definition
biparental organisms, share common fertilization system, mate-recognition system, sexual reproduction
Term
evolutionary species
Definition
single lineage of ancestor-descendant populations, maintain distinct identity, evolutionary patterns are ever-changing over long time period
Term
defining species
Definition
necessary to study
lumpers: one label, more variation within species
splitters: want to create new species labels
Term
speciation
Definition
origination of species by subdivision
result of environment (extrinsic isolation)
requires decrease/elimination of gene flow between parent/daughter populations with reproductive isolating barriers
once reach reproductive isolation then complete
hard to study since can't observe in a lifetime
inferred from fossil record/living species
links micro/macroevolution, temporarily extended process
Term
allopatric speciation
Definition
most common
populations isolated, don't exchange genes with parent population
over time two populations can't successfully interbreed (pre/postzygotic factors), irreversible reproductive isolation
always geographic factors involved
intrinsic/extrinsic barriers
Term
pre-zygotic isolation
Definition
1. habitat isolation: live in different habitats in same region
2. temporal isolation: mate at different times of day/year
3. ethological isolation: different mating behavior
4. mechanical isolation: mating but no gamete transfer
5. gametic mortality/incompatibility: gamete transfer but egg unfertilized
Term
post-zygotic isolation
Definition
1. F1 unviability: hybrid offspring less viable
2. F1 sterility: hybrid offspring less fertile (mules)
3. hybrid breakdown: F2 backcross/later generations have decreased viability/fertility
Term
genetic divergence
Definition
mutation: more variation, occurs independently of gene flow
genetic drift/natural selection: alter allele frequency after isolation
Term
sympatric speciation
Definition
results from ecological conditions but doesn't require geographic isolation
decreased gene flow
different specialization for different resources
hybrid adaptation inefficient so assortive mating advantageous
Term
small isolated populations
Definition
new species appear
mutation/genetic drift have greater influence
Term
requirements for new species formation
Definition
different number of genes required to make new species, depends more on which genes differ
less differences between close species
create species by:
1. many small differences
2. one macro mutation (rare, hard to mate)
3. punctuated equilibrium (gaps in fossils): changes in developmental genes, gene regulation, population events
2.
Term
gradualism
Definition
Darwin, species gives rise to different one (due to natural selection) as a result of gradual accumulation of change
doesn't mean evolutionary speed is constant
Term
punctuated equilibrium
Definition
Eldredge and Gould
evolutionary history of species marked by equilibrium (stasis) with long periods of little change
once populations isolated, speciation occurs at a faster rate (mutation/drift have greater effect)
most phenotypic characteristics change very little over extended time (stasis)
when they do evolve, change rapidly between states (punctuation)
speciation/evolution rapid in short time periods, natural selection as conservative force
Term
causes of sudden speciation
Definition
1. polyploidizaiton: hybrid between populations with different chromosomal composition, cross only with other hybrids
2. chromosomal rearrangements: translocation (segment from one chromosome breaks off, attaches to nonhomologous chromosome), inversion, deletion
3. differences in mating system: self-incompatibility, physical differences
all very unlikely!
Term
phenetics
Definition
species classific based on overall similarity
distance between species calculated by algorithms
problems: all traits weighted equally, traits look similar but different evolutionary processes responsible
Term
cladistics
Definition
species classification based on genealogy (branching patterns of phylogeny)
favored method
traits weighted differently, some better clues of relatedness
Term
convergent evolution
Definition
independent evolution of similar adaptations in distinct evolutionary lines (fly/bird wings)
Term
parallel evolution
Definition
same trait arises separately in closely related species, not due to common ancestor (finches in different parts of world)
Term
analogous traits
Definition
common function in different species but independent evolution via convergent evolution
Term
homologous traits
Definition
shared among species because have common ancestor with trait
Term
primitive trait
Definition
inherited from distant ancestor, have not changed (5 digits on hand/foot)
Term
derived trait
Definition
new, not present in distant ancestor but in most common recent ancestor, new branch
from mutation/natural selection, change from ancestral (horses 1 digit, ancestor 5)
Term
anagenesis
Definition
transformation of species over time
ladder-like, no branching
less favorable
Term
paleospecies
Definition
species identified from fossil record by physical similarities/differences with other species along evolutionary line (lineage)
H. erectus paleospecies along line to H. sapiens
Term
cladogenesis
Definition
formation of more than one species from another over time, branching
humans/chimps from common ancestor
Term
anagenesis vs. cladogenesis
Definition
anagenesis: if H. erectus to H. sapiens without branching
cladogenesis: H. erectus to H. sapiens and H. neanderthal, sister taxa diverged separately
Term
arms race principle
Definition
species exist in multiple ecological relations with other species
species to species competition
no way to eradicate infectious disease, arms race will continue
Term
predatory-prey relationship
Definition
predator: selection for traits to maek better hunter
prey: selection for traits to make harder to get
results in escalation: species act as selective forces over one another, co-evolving in relation to each other in order to not be outcompeted
Term
red queen effect
Definition
species have to co-evolve as fast as they can run to stay in the same place
competition between species leads to escalation but no species gets advantage
Term
HIV arms race
Definition
drug resistant variants, virus evolves in response to antibiotics
must develop new antibiotics/ways to slow mutation rate (take off anti-retroviral treatment)
Term
tuberculosis arms race
Definition
common in other mammals, originally a zoonosis
domestication lead to transmission to humans, became human-to-human disease
antibiotics to treat
Term
asexuality
Definition
efficient, organized
more recent evolutionary origin
more at high latitudes/disturbed habitats
Term
sexuality
Definition
offspring different than parents
less efficient
more complicated
longer to occur
complex mechanisms (must find mate, need adaptations to get mate -> songs, dances)
female butterfly pheromones detected by males
some need other organisms to unite gametes
still very common despite costs in large multicellular organisms
Term
advantages of sexual reproduction
Definition
new genomes (haploid to diploid, importance of meiosis)
inter/intra chromosomal recombination (more variation, new potentially adaptive combinations)
accelerates evolution
bring together beneficial mutations
create rare genetic combinations that flourish when common types suffer
Term
costs of sexual reproduction
Definition
fewer favorable gene combinations
costly to find a mate/reproduce
species with higher parasite loads tend to be sexual (important in host/pathogen struggle)
Term
sexual selection
Definition
explains existence of costly mating traits
some have higher mortality rates
males compete for females, females compete among most attractive males
mate choice more important in females, depends on offspring investment/sex limits to reproduction
self-reinforcing mechanism, can result in evolution of runaway traits, may be balanced by other forms of natural selection
Term
criteria in choosing a mate
Definition
good genes (low parasite load): development of health signals, can be costly
attractive offspring
direct benefits: more feeding territory/good hunting skills
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