Term
| What is the difference between independent assortment and chromosomal segregation? |
|
Definition
| Segregation is the 2 alleles for a gene separating during meiosis I and independent assortment is the random alignment of chromosomes along the metaphase plate |
|
|
Term
| How does independent assortment contribute to genetic variation? |
|
Definition
| Independent assortment "mixes" the genetic pot and randomizes alleles |
|
|
Term
| How does chromosomal segregation contribute to genetic variation? |
|
Definition
| Due to chromosomal segregation the daughter cells have completely unique chromosomes |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between polyploidy and aneuploidy? |
|
Definition
| aneuploidy is a mutation where an organism has one less or one more chromosome than is normal, and polyploidy is a mutation where an organism has extra sets of chromosomes |
|
|
Term
| How does an aneuploidy cell/zygote happen? |
|
Definition
| it can happen via nondisjunction, which is the failure of homologues or sister chromatids to separate during cell division |
|
|
Term
| What does it mean that genes are linked? How does linkage affect the segregation of alleles? |
|
Definition
| linked genes are genes that tend to travel together during meiosis because they're loci are very close on the same chromosome. When chromosomes separate these genes tend to stay together |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between dominant & recessive alleles? |
|
Definition
| dominant alleles determine the appearance of an organism when the 2 alleles are different, and recessive alleles have no noticeable effect on the individual when the 2 alleles are different ie it only expresses when there are 2 recessive alleles |
|
|
Term
| How is the dominant/recessive relationship different from incomplete dominance? From co-dominance? How can you tell if alleles are behaving as dominant/recessive, incompletely dominant or co-dominant? |
|
Definition
| with dominant/recessive alleles there is only one (dominant) trait that shows up, but with incomplete dominance and co-dominance both alleles will be noticeable in the phenotype |
|
|
Term
| Explain what a lethal allele is. |
|
Definition
| alleles that are lethal to an organism when homozygous, and often have a dominant, visible, non-lethal phenotype when heterozygous ie achondroplasia |
|
|
Term
Explain what sex-linked means. In humans, why are sex-linked genetic disorders more common in
males? |
|
Definition
| genes that are found on the sex chromosomes are sex-linked. the y chromosome is much smaller and caries far fewer genes, so in males they only need one allele on the X chromosome to express a genetic disorder such as color blindness or hemophilia |
|
|
Term
Describe what is meant by sex determination. Provide examples of different types of sex determination
within the animal kingdom. |
|
Definition
| sex determination refers to the chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual. in insects, ploidy determines sex, in other insects the number of X chromosomes determines sex, and in some mammals sex is determined by the presence of 2 X chromosomes or an X and a Y chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organism whose chromosome number differs from the wild type by part of a chromosome set; plus or minus ONE chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organisms with more than 2 complete sets of chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 2n-1; only one copy of a particular chromosome is present |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 2n+1; three copies of a particular chromosome are present |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organism who has 3 complete sets of chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organism who has 4 complete sets of chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ordered display of chromosomes from a single cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the failure of homologues or sister chromatids to separate during cell division |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| alternate versions of the same gene found at the same loci on homologous chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the genetic constitution underlying a single trait or set of traits |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the realized expression of the genotype; the physical appearance or functional expression of a trait |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| having two identical alleles of the same gene |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| having two different alleles of the same gene |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the genotype of an organism that has only one allele for a given gene/set of genes; ie the individual is missing one copy (XY for example) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a diagrammatic way of showing the possible genotypes and phenotypes of genetic crosses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| usually refers to plants that produce phenotypically identical offspring following self-pollination |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the 2 alleles for each gene, located on homologous chromosomes, separate during meiosis (anaphase I) |
|
|
Term
| law of independent assortment |
|
Definition
| alleles of genes on nonhomologous chromosomes assort independently during meiosis (metaphase I) |
|
|
Term
| chromosomal theory of inheritance |
|
Definition
| genes (& therefore alleles) have specific loci on chromosomes & its the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| determine the appearance of the organism when the 2 alleles of that gene are different |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| no noticeable effect on the organism's appearance when the 2 alleles of that gene are different |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| examining the inheritance of a single trait |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| always cross unknown individual to an individual known to be homozygous recessive |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| genes that tend to travel together during meiosis because they're nearby on the same chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| examining the inheritance of two genes, each with alleles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the likelyhood of a given outcome; governs mendilian genetics |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neither allele is dominant, resulting in a phenotype with partial influence from both alleles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Describes a case in which two or more alleles of a gene are each dominant to other alleles but not to each other. The phenotype of a heterozygote for codominant alleles exhibit characteristics of each of the homozygous forms (ie A & B blood types) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 3 or more alternate forms of an allele that can occupy the same locus; only 2 of the alleles can be present in a single organism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| alleles that are lethal to the organism when homozygous |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 2 or more genes control a single phenotypic trait; ie height, weight skin pigmentation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Any eukaryotic chromosome that is not a sex chromosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A chromosome that is related to sex |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chromosomal pattern that determines sex; varies with species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any gene located on the sex chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1 gene that has multiple phenotypic affects ie phenylketonuria causes mental retardation, affects skin pigmentation, reduced amounts of hair, etc |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a gene on one locus alters the phenotypic expression of another gene at a second, different locus ie albinism & hair color |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| multiple factors, including genetic & environmental, influence phenotype ex: height, type II diabetes |
|
|
Term
| Describe how DNA is replicated |
|
Definition
| each strand serves as a template. the double-helix unzips, allowing access to enzymes. new, complementary nucleotides move into place, and the base pairs join via hydrogen bonds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-nucleic acid strands are synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction
-nucleic acid strands interact via complementary base pairing
-nucleic acid strands are in the antiparallel orientation
-transcription proceeds from promoter to terminator
-mRNA's are translated in the 5' to 3' direction
-translation proceeds from start codon to stop codon
-polypeptides are synthesized in the N-terminus to C-terminus direction |
|
|
Term
Describe the process of transcription. Where does it occur? What enzyme(s)
are involved? What is the product(s)? How does it happen? When does it happen? |
|
Definition
| in the nucleus, a small section of DNA unwinds at the beginning of a gene. RNA is generated by the enzyme RNA polymerase, which copies a single strand of DNA from the promoter to the terminator. The RNA separates from the DNA strand, and the DNA strand zips back up. After the RNA strand is edited, it leaves the nucleus |
|
|
Term
| Compare transcription to replication. Include similarities AND differences. |
|
Definition
| replication is the exact copying of DNA, and transcription is the generation of an RNA molecule from DNA. both rely on unzipping DNA so that enzymes can copy it via nucleotide base pairing. DNA replication results in the exact copying of a double-stranded DNA molecule, where as transcription produces a single-stranded RNA molecule |
|
|
Term
| Compare DNA to RNA. Include similarities AND differences. |
|
Definition
| both are made of up nucleotides that pair up, but DNA is made of A-T & G-C bases, while RNA is made of A-U & G-C bases. DNA is double-stranded while RNA is single-stranded. DNA is replicated and RNA is transcribed |
|
|
Term
What types of RNA have we discussed? How are they produced? What are the function(s) of each
type of RNA? |
|
Definition
all RNA is produced through transcription
mRNA- messenger RNA; carries DNA info, protein blueprint
tRNA- transfer RNA; carries amino acids to the site of protein synthesis & interprets the mRNA
rRNA- ribosomal RNA; building block of ribosomes which are the site of protein synthesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the RNA-directed synthesis of a polypeptide |
|
|
Term
What does translation have to do with RNA/transcription? Describe the role(s) of RNA molecules during
the process of translation. |
|
Definition
| translation is when RNA directs the synthesis of polypeptides (proteins). mRNA is read by a ribosome, which is a mash of proteins and rRNA. tRNA brings the needed amino acids to the ribosome to build the appropriate proteins |
|
|
Term
What is the final product of translation? Where does translation occur within the cell? How does the
cell “know” where to begin translation? Or stop translation? |
|
Definition
| proteins are the final product and are made in the cytosol of the cell; a start codon and stop codon on a strand of mRNA signal the cell when to start and stop translation |
|
|
Term
| What is the genetic code? |
|
Definition
| the specific series of nucleotides that make up codons that code for which amino acid is needed in the chain |
|
|
Term
| What is reading frame & why is it so important? |
|
Definition
| the reading frame establishes when to start and stop the production of a protein. if the frame is shifted by mutation, the cell may make the wrong protein |
|
|
Term
| What is the relationship between anticodon, codon, tRNA, mRNA and polypeptides? |
|
Definition
| the codon tells the cell which amino acid comes next in the chain, as well as initiating and terminating protein production. tRNA uses an anticodon that pairs with the codon (being read from the mRNA) which tells the ribosome which amino acid is next in the chain. this is the process by which polypeptides are made |
|
|
Term
| Describe the process of translation. |
|
Definition
1. Initiation: mRNA binds to small ribosomal subunit. initiator tRNA binds to start codon, large ribosomal subunit binds to the small one
2. Elongation: anticodon of tRNA with an amino acid recognizes mRNA codon in A site. peptide bond forms between polypeptide (P site) & incoming amino acid (A site)empty tRNA moves from P site to E site, tRNA with polypeptide moves from A site to P site
3. Termination: stop codon read by release factor (does not carry amino acid; is a protein, not a tRNA) that ends translation. termination cannot be undone. release factor causes entire ribosomal complex to dissociate |
|
|
Term
| What is a mutation? Are mutations always bad? Why or why not? |
|
Definition
| a mutation is a random change in the genetic material in the cell; depending on where the mutation is, it could be catastrophic or it might not have any effect all. It depends on if the base change causes the codon to be read as a different amino acid |
|
|
Term
| Discuss the connection between genetic mutation, natural selection and the process of evolution. |
|
Definition
| genetic mutation drives natural selection, either by creating a favorable change in an organism's DNA or by removing it from the gene pool. an accumulation of these changes by a population overtime is evolution |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the exact copying of a DNA molecule by "unzipping" it & using each strand as a template for a new, complementary strand that binds via hydrogen bonds of the nucleotides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| parallel but moving or oriented in opposite directions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pertaining to the replication of DNA; one strand serves as the the template while the other one is new |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a structure added to the 5’ end of an mRNA consisting of methylated GTP attached by a 5’ to 5’ bond. The cap protects this end from degradation and is involved in the initiation of translation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a series of 1–200 adenine residues added to the 3’ end of an mRNA; the tail appears to enhance the stability of the mRNA by protecting it from degradation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| synthesis of RNA using DNA as the template |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| synthesis of the polypeptide by translating the message contained in the mRNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Enzyme that can synthesize RNA using a DNA template |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A DNA sequence that provides a recognition and attachment site for RNA polymerase to begin the process of gene transcription; it is located upstream from the transcription start site |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a section of nucleic acid sequence that marks the end of a gene or operon in genomic DNA during transcription |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the editing of the precursor messenger RNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| messenger RNA; carries the DNA information; protein blueprint |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ribosomal RNA; building block of ribosomes which are the site of protein synthesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transfer RNA; carries the amino acids to the site of protein synthesis & interprets the mRNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the site of protein synthesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a 3-letter (nucleotide) word that gets read off a mRNA molecule |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the genetic instructions for a polypeptide chain which are "written" in the DNA as a series of 3-letter wofds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| situations where a given amino acid is redundantly encoded by two or more codons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| after the promoter; signals the cell to start "printing" the amino acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| before the terminator; signals the cell to stop making the protein & disassembles the ribosomal unit |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| he three-nucleotide sequence at the end of a transfer RNA molecule that is complementary to, and base-pairs with, an amino-acid–specifying codon in messenger RNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a random change in the genetic material of the cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a change in a single nucleotide |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a nucleotide change that has no effect on the amino acid sequence of a protein |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a nucleotide change that results in an amino acid change in the encoded protein |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a nucleotide change that results in a premature stop codon, causing a truncated protein |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one or more nucleotides are added, leading to a change in the reading frame |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one or more nucleotides are deleted, leading to a change in the reading frame |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Refers to flexibility in the pairing between the base at the 5’ end of a tRNA anticodon and the base at the 3’ end of an mRNA codon. This flexibility allows a single tRNA to read more than one mRNA codon. |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between exponential population growth & logistic population growth? |
|
Definition
| exponential growth occurs under ideal conditions where there are no resource restraints on a population, and logistic growth occurs as a population reaches carrying capacity |
|
|
Term
| Under what types of circumstances would a population grow exponentially? Logistically? |
|
Definition
exponential growth occurs under ideal conditions where all members of a population have access to food and water and are able to reproduce to their maximum capacity ie there are NO limitations on the population
logistic growth occurs as resources become scarce and a population reaches its carrying capacity |
|
|
Term
| What factors can/do influence population density? Can population density change? Why or why not? |
|
Definition
| population density is influenced by competition, predation, disease, waste accumulation, and environmental changes. Population density changes as individuals are added to or removed from the population |
|
|
Term
| What are some characteristics typically found in K-selected populations? |
|
Definition
| long lived, mature late, have few offspring in a single reproductive event, extensive care of offspring, larger |
|
|
Term
| What are some characteristics typically found in R-selected populations? |
|
Definition
| short lived, mature early, many offspring per population even, not much care for offspring, smaller |
|
|
Term
| What is a survivorship curve & how is survivorship related to life history strategy? |
|
Definition
| a survivorship curve is the plot of the proportion in a cohort that is still alive at each age; survivorship curves tend to mirror life history strategies (type I for K-select, type III for R-selected, and type II for moderates) |
|
|
Term
| What is the relationship between population cycles & population dynamics? List some examples of reasons why a population may fluctuate from season to season/year to year etc. |
|
Definition
| population dynamics drive population cycles; if less resources are available (population dynamics) the population will fall (population cycles) and vise versa |
|
|
Term
| What type of growth is the human population currently experiencing? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Are all human populations experiencing the same growth curve? How does an age structure analysis/diagram inform our ability to predict exponential vs. logistic vs. declining growth? |
|
Definition
| underdeveloped countries are experiencing exponential growth, while developed countries are reaching logistic growth. based on age structures we can predict how many in the population will be reaching an age where they can give birth, and how many will likely die off soon |
|
|
Term
| What types of factors influence the dispersion and/or density of the human population? |
|
Definition
| resource availability (water) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the study of the interactions between organisms & their environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a group of individuals of the same species occurring together at the same time and place |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| studying the relationship between populations and their environments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the study of the allele frequencies in a population and how they change (evolution) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| study of population statistics and their change over time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the pattern of spacing among individuals within a population |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| number of individuals per unit area; density changes as individuals are added or removed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| age when reproduction begins, how often reproduction occurs, how many offspring are produced per reproductive event |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| proportion of individuals of different ages |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| occurs under ideal conditions where all members of a population have access to abundant food and are able to reproduce at their maximum capacity; assumes there are no limitations placed on a group; often occurs after species introduction into a new habitat or after catastrophic population decline |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the rate of population growth slows (nears 0) as the population reaches carrying capacity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| K; the maximum population size a habitat can support; can change over time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| uneven distribution of resources; packs, herds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| territories; resources found uniformly throughout the area |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| spacing of each individual is not dependent on the location of other individuals; ie dandelions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a death rate that rises, or a birth rate that slows, as the population density rises |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neither the birth rate nor the death rate change as a result of population density |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| plot of the proportion in a cohort still alive at each age |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| percentage of original population that survives to a given age |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the interactions between biotic and abiotic factors that cause population size to vary |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| population fluctuates in size |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| movement towards zero population growth through a combination of low birth rates and low death rates |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| proportion of individuals of different ages in a population |
|
|
Term
| Explain the relationship between niche and resource partitioning. How does this benefit the species involved? |
|
Definition
| a niche is the ways an organism utilizes its environment and its resources, and resource partitioning is the differentiation of niches which allow multiple species to live in a community. in this way competition is reduced and each species has access to more resources |
|
|
Term
| Explain the relationship between realized & fundamental niches. |
|
Definition
| the fundamental niche is the potential niche of a species, and the realized niche is the proportion of the fundamental niche that a species actually occupies |
|
|
Term
| What does it mean when a community interaction is shown as (-/-) or (+/-) or (+/+)? Can you classify all of the community interactions as one of those? |
|
Definition
| this refers to the nature of the relationship between two interacting species, and how each species is affected by the relationship. There are some relationships where one species is not effected, so these interactions do not cover all potential relationships |
|
|
Term
| Species have evolved a number of adaptations to improve their success within their particular ecological niche. Provide some examples of adaptations that provide a species with a greater chance of reproductive success within their ecological niche. |
|
Definition
| mimicry to reduce predation (nonpoisonous frogs taking on the appearance of poisonous frogs); armored defense (cactus); toxins |
|
|
Term
| Explain what species diversity is, and why greater species diversity tends to equal a healthier ecosystem. |
|
Definition
| species diversity is a measure of both the species richness and abundance in an ecosystem; great species diversity leads to more productive, stable environments that are better able to resist invasive species |
|
|
Term
| Why is food web a better way to represent community interactions, rather than a food chain? |
|
Definition
| the length of a food chain is limited by the inefficiency of energy transfer, and a food web is better able to convey all the ways that energy is transferred throughout an ecosystem |
|
|
Term
| Explain the energetic hypothesis and what it has to do with the length of a food chain. |
|
Definition
| ~1/10 energy gets to the next trophic level; this hypothesis limits the length of the food chain |
|
|
Term
| Which group of organisms would you predict would be the most abundant in the food chain/web? Why? |
|
Definition
| primary producers; all organisms are dependent on primary producers for energy, be it directly (herbivores) or indirectly (carnivores) |
|
|
Term
| Which group of organisms would you predict would be the least abundant in the food chain/web? Why? |
|
Definition
| secondary; they have access to the least amount of energy from the sun |
|
|
Term
| Explain the role that decomposer/detritivores play in food chains/webs. What would happen to the food chain/web if there were no detritivores present? |
|
Definition
| detrivores consume dead biomass, and effectively recycle the organic molecules found in that biomass. without detrivores several cycles (nitrogen, carbon) would cease to be cycles and would become one-way pathways |
|
|
Term
| What is the relationship between food chains & biogeochemical cycles? |
|
Definition
| foodchains allow for the organic molecules in an ecosystem to be recycled (biogeochemical cycles) |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between primary & secondary succession? |
|
Definition
| primary succession begins in a "lifeless" area (volcano eruption) and secondary succession is a series of community changes that take place on previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat (growth after a forest fire) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an assemblage of populations living in the same place at the same time, and capable of interacting |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one or more communities and the physical environment around them |
|
|
Term
| intraspecific interactions |
|
Definition
| interactions between members of the same species |
|
|
Term
| interspecific interactions |
|
Definition
| interactions between members of different species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (-/-) interaction where different species compete for one or more resources that limit their growth and survival; can result in competitive exclusion or resource partitioning |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| if two species compete with each other for the same resource, one species may use the resource more efficiently than the other |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| functional role and position of an organism in the ecosystem; sum total of all the ways an organism utilizes the resources of its environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| differentiation of niches allows similar species to survive in a single community |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the potential niche of that species (abiotic factors) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the portion of its fundamental niche that a species actually occupies (biotic factors) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (+/-) an interspecific interaction where one species kills and eats the other |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (+/-) an interspecific interaction where one species eats part of a plant or algae |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| two or more species live in direct contact with one another |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (+/+) both species benefit from the relationship; bees & flowers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (+/-) one organism benefits while hte other is either harmed or killed; estimates put ~33% of all species on Earth as parasites; ticks |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (+/neutral) one organism benefits while the other is unaffected; clownfish living in anenomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a measure of both species richness and relative abundance |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| number of different species present in a community |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the proportion that each species represents of all individuals in the community |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| species in a community that are most abundant or have the greatest collective biomass |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| not necessarily abundant but occupy a pivotal ecological niche |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| species that alter the physical environment on a large scale |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| feeding relationships between organisms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| length of a food chain is limited by the inefficiency of energy transfer along the chain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organisms that break down dead things |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organisms that consume dead things |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the recycling of nutrients through ecosystems; involves both biotic and abiotic components |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the movement of carbon from the atmosphere to terrestrial/marine reservoirs and back |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| changes in the composition and structure after a disturbance, which changes over time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| begins in a "lifeless" area |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| occurs after an existing community was disturbed, leaving the soil intact |
|
|
