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BIOL 201
Unit 5
174
Biology
Undergraduate 2
05/07/2017

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Term
What is the difference between independent assortment and chromosomal segregation?
Definition
Segregation is the 2 alleles for a gene separating during meiosis I and independent assortment is the random alignment of chromosomes along the metaphase plate
Term
How does independent assortment contribute to genetic variation?
Definition
Independent assortment "mixes" the genetic pot and randomizes alleles
Term
How does chromosomal segregation contribute to genetic variation?
Definition
Due to chromosomal segregation the daughter cells have completely unique chromosomes
Term
What is the difference between polyploidy and aneuploidy?
Definition
aneuploidy is a mutation where an organism has one less or one more chromosome than is normal, and polyploidy is a mutation where an organism has extra sets of chromosomes
Term
How does an aneuploidy cell/zygote happen?
Definition
it can happen via nondisjunction, which is the failure of homologues or sister chromatids to separate during cell division
Term
What does it mean that genes are linked? How does linkage affect the segregation of alleles?
Definition
linked genes are genes that tend to travel together during meiosis because they're loci are very close on the same chromosome. When chromosomes separate these genes tend to stay together
Term
What is the difference between dominant & recessive alleles?
Definition
dominant alleles determine the appearance of an organism when the 2 alleles are different, and recessive alleles have no noticeable effect on the individual when the 2 alleles are different ie it only expresses when there are 2 recessive alleles
Term
How is the dominant/recessive relationship different from incomplete dominance? From co-dominance? How can you tell if alleles are behaving as dominant/recessive, incompletely dominant or co-dominant?
Definition
with dominant/recessive alleles there is only one (dominant) trait that shows up, but with incomplete dominance and co-dominance both alleles will be noticeable in the phenotype
Term
Explain what a lethal allele is.
Definition
alleles that are lethal to an organism when homozygous, and often have a dominant, visible, non-lethal phenotype when heterozygous ie achondroplasia
Term
Explain what sex-linked means. In humans, why are sex-linked genetic disorders more common in
males?
Definition
genes that are found on the sex chromosomes are sex-linked. the y chromosome is much smaller and caries far fewer genes, so in males they only need one allele on the X chromosome to express a genetic disorder such as color blindness or hemophilia
Term
Describe what is meant by sex determination. Provide examples of different types of sex determination
within the animal kingdom.
Definition
sex determination refers to the chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual. in insects, ploidy determines sex, in other insects the number of X chromosomes determines sex, and in some mammals sex is determined by the presence of 2 X chromosomes or an X and a Y chromosome
Term
aneuploidy
Definition
organism whose chromosome number differs from the wild type by part of a chromosome set; plus or minus ONE chromosome
Term
polyploidy
Definition
organisms with more than 2 complete sets of chromosomes
Term
monosomic
Definition
2n-1; only one copy of a particular chromosome is present
Term
trisomic
Definition
2n+1; three copies of a particular chromosome are present
Term
triploid
Definition
organism who has 3 complete sets of chromosomes
Term
tetraploid
Definition
organism who has 4 complete sets of chromosomes
Term
karyotype
Definition
ordered display of chromosomes from a single cell
Term
non-disjunction
Definition
the failure of homologues or sister chromatids to separate during cell division
Term
alleles
Definition
alternate versions of the same gene found at the same loci on homologous chromosomes
Term
genotype
Definition
the genetic constitution underlying a single trait or set of traits
Term
phenotype
Definition
the realized expression of the genotype; the physical appearance or functional expression of a trait
Term
homozygous
Definition
having two identical alleles of the same gene
Term
heterozygous
Definition
having two different alleles of the same gene
Term
hemizygous
Definition
the genotype of an organism that has only one allele for a given gene/set of genes; ie the individual is missing one copy (XY for example)
Term
Punnett square
Definition
a diagrammatic way of showing the possible genotypes and phenotypes of genetic crosses
Term
true breeding
Definition
usually refers to plants that produce phenotypically identical offspring following self-pollination
Term
law of segregation
Definition
the 2 alleles for each gene, located on homologous chromosomes, separate during meiosis (anaphase I)
Term
law of independent assortment
Definition
alleles of genes on nonhomologous chromosomes assort independently during meiosis (metaphase I)
Term
chromosomal theory of inheritance
Definition
genes (& therefore alleles) have specific loci on chromosomes & its the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment
Term
dominant allele
Definition
determine the appearance of the organism when the 2 alleles of that gene are different
Term
recessive allele
Definition
no noticeable effect on the organism's appearance when the 2 alleles of that gene are different
Term
monohybrid cross
Definition
examining the inheritance of a single trait
Term
test cross
Definition
always cross unknown individual to an individual known to be homozygous recessive
Term
linked genes
Definition
genes that tend to travel together during meiosis because they're nearby on the same chromosome
Term
dihybrid cross
Definition
examining the inheritance of two genes, each with alleles
Term
probability
Definition
the likelyhood of a given outcome; governs mendilian genetics
Term
incomplete dominance
Definition
neither allele is dominant, resulting in a phenotype with partial influence from both alleles
Term
co-dominance
Definition
Describes a case in which two or more alleles of a gene are each dominant to other alleles but not to each other. The phenotype of a heterozygote for codominant alleles exhibit characteristics of each of the homozygous forms (ie A & B blood types)
Term
multiple alleles
Definition
3 or more alternate forms of an allele that can occupy the same locus; only 2 of the alleles can be present in a single organism
Term
lethal alleles
Definition
alleles that are lethal to the organism when homozygous
Term
polygenic inhertance
Definition
2 or more genes control a single phenotypic trait; ie height, weight skin pigmentation
Term
autosomes
Definition
Any eukaryotic chromosome that is not a sex chromosome
Term
sex chromosomes
Definition
A chromosome that is related to sex
Term
sex determination
Definition
chromosomal pattern that determines sex; varies with species
Term
sex-linked genes
Definition
any gene located on the sex chromosomes
Term
pleiotropy
Definition
1 gene that has multiple phenotypic affects ie phenylketonuria causes mental retardation, affects skin pigmentation, reduced amounts of hair, etc
Term
epistasis
Definition
a gene on one locus alters the phenotypic expression of another gene at a second, different locus ie albinism & hair color
Term
multifactorial
Definition
multiple factors, including genetic & environmental, influence phenotype ex: height, type II diabetes
Term
Describe how DNA is replicated
Definition
each strand serves as a template. the double-helix unzips, allowing access to enzymes. new, complementary nucleotides move into place, and the base pairs join via hydrogen bonds
Term
What are the DNA rules?
Definition
-nucleic acid strands are synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction
-nucleic acid strands interact via complementary base pairing
-nucleic acid strands are in the antiparallel orientation
-transcription proceeds from promoter to terminator
-mRNA's are translated in the 5' to 3' direction
-translation proceeds from start codon to stop codon
-polypeptides are synthesized in the N-terminus to C-terminus direction
Term
Describe the process of transcription. Where does it occur? What enzyme(s)
are involved? What is the product(s)? How does it happen? When does it happen?
Definition
in the nucleus, a small section of DNA unwinds at the beginning of a gene. RNA is generated by the enzyme RNA polymerase, which copies a single strand of DNA from the promoter to the terminator. The RNA separates from the DNA strand, and the DNA strand zips back up. After the RNA strand is edited, it leaves the nucleus
Term
Compare transcription to replication. Include similarities AND differences.
Definition
replication is the exact copying of DNA, and transcription is the generation of an RNA molecule from DNA. both rely on unzipping DNA so that enzymes can copy it via nucleotide base pairing. DNA replication results in the exact copying of a double-stranded DNA molecule, where as transcription produces a single-stranded RNA molecule
Term
Compare DNA to RNA. Include similarities AND differences.
Definition
both are made of up nucleotides that pair up, but DNA is made of A-T & G-C bases, while RNA is made of A-U & G-C bases. DNA is double-stranded while RNA is single-stranded. DNA is replicated and RNA is transcribed
Term
What types of RNA have we discussed? How are they produced? What are the function(s) of each
type of RNA?
Definition
all RNA is produced through transcription
mRNA- messenger RNA; carries DNA info, protein blueprint
tRNA- transfer RNA; carries amino acids to the site of protein synthesis & interprets the mRNA
rRNA- ribosomal RNA; building block of ribosomes which are the site of protein synthesis
Term
What is translation?
Definition
the RNA-directed synthesis of a polypeptide
Term
What does translation have to do with RNA/transcription? Describe the role(s) of RNA molecules during
the process of translation.
Definition
translation is when RNA directs the synthesis of polypeptides (proteins). mRNA is read by a ribosome, which is a mash of proteins and rRNA. tRNA brings the needed amino acids to the ribosome to build the appropriate proteins
Term
What is the final product of translation? Where does translation occur within the cell? How does the
cell “know” where to begin translation? Or stop translation?
Definition
proteins are the final product and are made in the cytosol of the cell; a start codon and stop codon on a strand of mRNA signal the cell when to start and stop translation
Term
What is the genetic code?
Definition
the specific series of nucleotides that make up codons that code for which amino acid is needed in the chain
Term
What is reading frame & why is it so important?
Definition
the reading frame establishes when to start and stop the production of a protein. if the frame is shifted by mutation, the cell may make the wrong protein
Term
What is the relationship between anticodon, codon, tRNA, mRNA and polypeptides?
Definition
the codon tells the cell which amino acid comes next in the chain, as well as initiating and terminating protein production. tRNA uses an anticodon that pairs with the codon (being read from the mRNA) which tells the ribosome which amino acid is next in the chain. this is the process by which polypeptides are made
Term
Describe the process of translation.
Definition
1. Initiation: mRNA binds to small ribosomal subunit. initiator tRNA binds to start codon, large ribosomal subunit binds to the small one
2. Elongation: anticodon of tRNA with an amino acid recognizes mRNA codon in A site. peptide bond forms between polypeptide (P site) & incoming amino acid (A site)empty tRNA moves from P site to E site, tRNA with polypeptide moves from A site to P site
3. Termination: stop codon read by release factor (does not carry amino acid; is a protein, not a tRNA) that ends translation. termination cannot be undone. release factor causes entire ribosomal complex to dissociate
Term
What is a mutation? Are mutations always bad? Why or why not?
Definition
a mutation is a random change in the genetic material in the cell; depending on where the mutation is, it could be catastrophic or it might not have any effect all. It depends on if the base change causes the codon to be read as a different amino acid
Term
Discuss the connection between genetic mutation, natural selection and the process of evolution.
Definition
genetic mutation drives natural selection, either by creating a favorable change in an organism's DNA or by removing it from the gene pool. an accumulation of these changes by a population overtime is evolution
Term
DNA replication
Definition
the exact copying of a DNA molecule by "unzipping" it & using each strand as a template for a new, complementary strand that binds via hydrogen bonds of the nucleotides
Term
antiparallel
Definition
parallel but moving or oriented in opposite directions
Term
semi-conservative
Definition
pertaining to the replication of DNA; one strand serves as the the template while the other one is new
Term
5'
Definition
a structure added to the 5’ end of an mRNA consisting of methylated GTP attached by a 5’ to 5’ bond. The cap protects this end from degradation and is involved in the initiation of translation
Term
3'
Definition
a series of 1–200 adenine residues added to the 3’ end of an mRNA; the tail appears to enhance the stability of the mRNA by protecting it from degradation
Term
transcription
Definition
synthesis of RNA using DNA as the template
Term
translation
Definition
synthesis of the polypeptide by translating the message contained in the mRNA
Term
RNA polymerase
Definition
Enzyme that can synthesize RNA using a DNA template
Term
promoter
Definition
A DNA sequence that provides a recognition and attachment site for RNA polymerase to begin the process of gene transcription; it is located upstream from the transcription start site
Term
terminator
Definition
a section of nucleic acid sequence that marks the end of a gene or operon in genomic DNA during transcription
Term
splicing
Definition
the editing of the precursor messenger RNA
Term
mRNA
Definition
messenger RNA; carries the DNA information; protein blueprint
Term
rRNA
Definition
ribosomal RNA; building block of ribosomes which are the site of protein synthesis
Term
tRNA
Definition
transfer RNA; carries the amino acids to the site of protein synthesis & interprets the mRNA
Term
ribosome
Definition
the site of protein synthesis
Term
codon
Definition
a 3-letter (nucleotide) word that gets read off a mRNA molecule
Term
genetic code
Definition
the genetic instructions for a polypeptide chain which are "written" in the DNA as a series of 3-letter wofds
Term
redundant
Definition
situations where a given amino acid is redundantly encoded by two or more codons
Term
start codon
Definition
after the promoter; signals the cell to start "printing" the amino acids
Term
stop codon
Definition
before the terminator; signals the cell to stop making the protein & disassembles the ribosomal unit
Term
anticodon
Definition
he three-nucleotide sequence at the end of a transfer RNA molecule that is complementary to, and base-pairs with, an amino-acid–specifying codon in messenger RNA
Term
mutation
Definition
a random change in the genetic material of the cell
Term
point mutation
Definition
a change in a single nucleotide
Term
silent point mutation
Definition
a nucleotide change that has no effect on the amino acid sequence of a protein
Term
missense point mutation
Definition
a nucleotide change that results in an amino acid change in the encoded protein
Term
nonsense point mutation
Definition
a nucleotide change that results in a premature stop codon, causing a truncated protein
Term
insertion mutation
Definition
one or more nucleotides are added, leading to a change in the reading frame
Term
deletion mutation
Definition
one or more nucleotides are deleted, leading to a change in the reading frame
Term
wobble position
Definition
Refers to flexibility in the pairing between the base at the 5’ end of a tRNA anticodon and the base at the 3’ end of an mRNA codon. This flexibility allows a single tRNA to read more than one mRNA codon.
Term
What is the difference between exponential population growth & logistic population growth?
Definition
exponential growth occurs under ideal conditions where there are no resource restraints on a population, and logistic growth occurs as a population reaches carrying capacity
Term
Under what types of circumstances would a population grow exponentially? Logistically?
Definition
exponential growth occurs under ideal conditions where all members of a population have access to food and water and are able to reproduce to their maximum capacity ie there are NO limitations on the population
logistic growth occurs as resources become scarce and a population reaches its carrying capacity
Term
What factors can/do influence population density? Can population density change? Why or why not?
Definition
population density is influenced by competition, predation, disease, waste accumulation, and environmental changes. Population density changes as individuals are added to or removed from the population
Term
What are some characteristics typically found in K-selected populations?
Definition
long lived, mature late, have few offspring in a single reproductive event, extensive care of offspring, larger
Term
What are some characteristics typically found in R-selected populations?
Definition
short lived, mature early, many offspring per population even, not much care for offspring, smaller
Term
What is a survivorship curve & how is survivorship related to life history strategy?
Definition
a survivorship curve is the plot of the proportion in a cohort that is still alive at each age; survivorship curves tend to mirror life history strategies (type I for K-select, type III for R-selected, and type II for moderates)
Term
What is the relationship between population cycles & population dynamics? List some examples of reasons why a population may fluctuate from season to season/year to year etc.
Definition
population dynamics drive population cycles; if less resources are available (population dynamics) the population will fall (population cycles) and vise versa
Term
What type of growth is the human population currently experiencing?
Definition
exponential
Term
Are all human populations experiencing the same growth curve? How does an age structure analysis/diagram inform our ability to predict exponential vs. logistic vs. declining growth?
Definition
underdeveloped countries are experiencing exponential growth, while developed countries are reaching logistic growth. based on age structures we can predict how many in the population will be reaching an age where they can give birth, and how many will likely die off soon
Term
What types of factors influence the dispersion and/or density of the human population?
Definition
resource availability (water)
Term
ecology
Definition
the study of the interactions between organisms & their environment
Term
population
Definition
a group of individuals of the same species occurring together at the same time and place
Term
biotic
Definition
living
Term
abiotic
Definition
nonliving
Term
population ecology
Definition
studying the relationship between populations and their environments
Term
population genetics
Definition
the study of the allele frequencies in a population and how they change (evolution)
Term
demographics
Definition
study of population statistics and their change over time
Term
immigration
Definition
Migration into a place
Term
emmigration
Definition
migration out of a place
Term
population dispersion
Definition
the pattern of spacing among individuals within a population
Term
population density
Definition
number of individuals per unit area; density changes as individuals are added or removed
Term
life history strategies
Definition
age when reproduction begins, how often reproduction occurs, how many offspring are produced per reproductive event
Term
cohort
Definition
proportion of individuals of different ages
Term
exponential growth
Definition
occurs under ideal conditions where all members of a population have access to abundant food and are able to reproduce at their maximum capacity; assumes there are no limitations placed on a group; often occurs after species introduction into a new habitat or after catastrophic population decline
Term
logistic growth
Definition
the rate of population growth slows (nears 0) as the population reaches carrying capacity
Term
carrying capacity
Definition
K; the maximum population size a habitat can support; can change over time
Term
clumped spacing
Definition
uneven distribution of resources; packs, herds
Term
uniform spacing
Definition
territories; resources found uniformly throughout the area
Term
random spacing
Definition
spacing of each individual is not dependent on the location of other individuals; ie dandelions
Term
density-dependent
Definition
a death rate that rises, or a birth rate that slows, as the population density rises
Term
density-independent
Definition
neither the birth rate nor the death rate change as a result of population density
Term
survivorship curve
Definition
plot of the proportion in a cohort still alive at each age
Term
survivorship
Definition
percentage of original population that survives to a given age
Term
population dynamics
Definition
the interactions between biotic and abiotic factors that cause population size to vary
Term
population cycles
Definition
population fluctuates in size
Term
demographic transition
Definition
movement towards zero population growth through a combination of low birth rates and low death rates
Term
age structure
Definition
proportion of individuals of different ages in a population
Term
Explain the relationship between niche and resource partitioning. How does this benefit the species involved?
Definition
a niche is the ways an organism utilizes its environment and its resources, and resource partitioning is the differentiation of niches which allow multiple species to live in a community. in this way competition is reduced and each species has access to more resources
Term
Explain the relationship between realized & fundamental niches.
Definition
the fundamental niche is the potential niche of a species, and the realized niche is the proportion of the fundamental niche that a species actually occupies
Term
What does it mean when a community interaction is shown as (-/-) or (+/-) or (+/+)? Can you classify all of the community interactions as one of those?
Definition
this refers to the nature of the relationship between two interacting species, and how each species is affected by the relationship. There are some relationships where one species is not effected, so these interactions do not cover all potential relationships
Term
Species have evolved a number of adaptations to improve their success within their particular ecological niche. Provide some examples of adaptations that provide a species with a greater chance of reproductive success within their ecological niche.
Definition
mimicry to reduce predation (nonpoisonous frogs taking on the appearance of poisonous frogs); armored defense (cactus); toxins
Term
Explain what species diversity is, and why greater species diversity tends to equal a healthier ecosystem.
Definition
species diversity is a measure of both the species richness and abundance in an ecosystem; great species diversity leads to more productive, stable environments that are better able to resist invasive species
Term
Why is food web a better way to represent community interactions, rather than a food chain?
Definition
the length of a food chain is limited by the inefficiency of energy transfer, and a food web is better able to convey all the ways that energy is transferred throughout an ecosystem
Term
Explain the energetic hypothesis and what it has to do with the length of a food chain.
Definition
~1/10 energy gets to the next trophic level; this hypothesis limits the length of the food chain
Term
Which group of organisms would you predict would be the most abundant in the food chain/web? Why?
Definition
primary producers; all organisms are dependent on primary producers for energy, be it directly (herbivores) or indirectly (carnivores)
Term
Which group of organisms would you predict would be the least abundant in the food chain/web? Why?
Definition
secondary; they have access to the least amount of energy from the sun
Term
Explain the role that decomposer/detritivores play in food chains/webs. What would happen to the food chain/web if there were no detritivores present?
Definition
detrivores consume dead biomass, and effectively recycle the organic molecules found in that biomass. without detrivores several cycles (nitrogen, carbon) would cease to be cycles and would become one-way pathways
Term
What is the relationship between food chains & biogeochemical cycles?
Definition
foodchains allow for the organic molecules in an ecosystem to be recycled (biogeochemical cycles)
Term
What is the difference between primary & secondary succession?
Definition
primary succession begins in a "lifeless" area (volcano eruption) and secondary succession is a series of community changes that take place on previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat (growth after a forest fire)
Term
community
Definition
an assemblage of populations living in the same place at the same time, and capable of interacting
Term
ecosystem
Definition
one or more communities and the physical environment around them
Term
intraspecific interactions
Definition
interactions between members of the same species
Term
interspecific interactions
Definition
interactions between members of different species
Term
competition
Definition
(-/-) interaction where different species compete for one or more resources that limit their growth and survival; can result in competitive exclusion or resource partitioning
Term
competitive exclusion
Definition
if two species compete with each other for the same resource, one species may use the resource more efficiently than the other
Term
niche
Definition
functional role and position of an organism in the ecosystem; sum total of all the ways an organism utilizes the resources of its environment
Term
resource partitioning
Definition
differentiation of niches allows similar species to survive in a single community
Term
fundamental niche
Definition
the potential niche of that species (abiotic factors)
Term
realized niche
Definition
the portion of its fundamental niche that a species actually occupies (biotic factors)
Term
predation
Definition
(+/-) an interspecific interaction where one species kills and eats the other
Term
herbivory
Definition
(+/-) an interspecific interaction where one species eats part of a plant or algae
Term
symbiosis
Definition
two or more species live in direct contact with one another
Term
mutualism
Definition
(+/+) both species benefit from the relationship; bees & flowers
Term
parasitism
Definition
(+/-) one organism benefits while hte other is either harmed or killed; estimates put ~33% of all species on Earth as parasites; ticks
Term
commensalism
Definition
(+/neutral) one organism benefits while the other is unaffected; clownfish living in anenomes
Term
species diversity
Definition
a measure of both species richness and relative abundance
Term
species richness
Definition
number of different species present in a community
Term
relative abundance
Definition
the proportion that each species represents of all individuals in the community
Term
dominant species
Definition
species in a community that are most abundant or have the greatest collective biomass
Term
keystone species
Definition
not necessarily abundant but occupy a pivotal ecological niche
Term
foundation species
Definition
species that alter the physical environment on a large scale
Term
trophic structure
Definition
feeding relationships between organisms
Term
energetic hypothesis
Definition
length of a food chain is limited by the inefficiency of energy transfer along the chain
Term
producers
Definition
do photosynthesis
Term
decomposers
Definition
organisms that break down dead things
Term
detritivores
Definition
organisms that consume dead things
Term
biogeochemical cycles
Definition
the recycling of nutrients through ecosystems; involves both biotic and abiotic components
Term
carbon cycle
Definition
the movement of carbon from the atmosphere to terrestrial/marine reservoirs and back
Term
ecological succession
Definition
changes in the composition and structure after a disturbance, which changes over time
Term
primary succession
Definition
begins in a "lifeless" area
Term
secondary succession
Definition
occurs after an existing community was disturbed, leaving the soil intact
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