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Biol 107 Exam 2
Biology 107, Exam 2, Dr. Julie Stanton
141
Biology
Undergraduate 1
02/22/2012

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Cards

Term
What is "metabolism?" What pathways does it involve?
Definition

It is the sum of all an organism's chemical reactions.

 

It invovles metabolic pathways.

Term

What are the two main types of metabolic pathways?

 

For each, describe and give an example.

Definition


Catabolic Pathways: Release energy by breaking down complex molecules. Example: Cellular Respiration

 

Anabolic Pathways: Consume energy to build complex molecules. Example: Photosynthesis

Term
Define Energy
Definition
The capicity to cause change.
Term
What are the two main types of energy? Give examples.
Definition

Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion. Example: Thermal energy.

 

Potential Energy: Stored energy. Example: Chemical energy of structure.

Term
What is the first law of thermodynamics?
Definition

Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be converted into one form or another.

 

(This is the principle of conservation of energy)

Term
What is the second law of thermodynamics?
Definition

Energy conversions will always increase the entropy of the universe.

 

This is because some energy is always lost as heat.

Term
Define entropy.
Definition
A measure of dissorder or randomness.
Term
Regarding energy, does the either the quality or quantity of energy ever change.
Definition

The quanity of energy never changes.

 

The quality of energy changes.

 

(Heat is random energy of the lowest quality.)

Term

How is order obtained within an organism?

 

(Regarding the laws of thermodynamics)

Definition

Organisms are open systems, so energy and materials are exchanged with their surroundings.

 

Order can be increased within the organism if entropy is increased in the surroundings. (Order is decreased in the surroundings)

Term
What is free energy? What is its symbol?
Definition

Free energy is energy available to do work.

 

Its symbol is G (for Gibb's free energy)

Term

When is a process spontaneous?

 

(In terms of G)

Definition

It is spontaneous when (delta)G < 0

 

Note: Spontaneous DOES NOT mean fast.

Term
What does exergonic mean?
Definition

It means energy out.

 

It has a -(delta)G

 

It releases energy.

Term
What does endergonic mean?
Definition

It means energy "in."

 

It has a +(delta)G

 

It absorbs energy.

 

Term
What would happen if organisms were closed systems?
Definition

Their reactions would reach equilibrium. They would be dead.

 

(delta)G = 0

 

 

Term
When is equilibrium within an organism ever achieved?
Definition
Never. If this were to happen, they would die.
Term
What does ATP stand for? What is its function?
Definition

ATP stands for adenosinetriphosphate.

 

It is an energy carrier molecule.

Term
What does ATP do regarding exergonic and endergonic reactions?
Definition

ATP can be created in exergonic reactions.

 

ATP can by hydrolyzed for endergonic reactions.

Term
What is the structure of ATP?
Definition

 

Adenine

 

Ribose

 

Three phosphate groups ("high energy" bonds)

 

Term
How much energy does hydrolysis of ATP produce?
Definition

 

(delta)G = -7.3 kcal/mol

 

 

Term
What does "ergon" mean?
Definition
Ergon is Greek for "work"
Term
How does ATP work?
Definition

ATP can be used to phosphorylate molecules.

 

The transfer of a phosphate group makes the phosphorylated intermediate more reactive.

 

ATP phosphorylates glutamic acid making the amino acid less stable. Ammonia then displaces the phosphate group, forming glutamine.

Term
What are the two main types of work ATP does? How?
Definition

Transport Work: ATP phosphorylates transport proteins

 

Mechanical Work: ATP binds noncovalently to motor proteins and then is hydrolyzed

Term
Is ATP formation a cycle?
Definition

Yes, ATP is continuously used and regenerated.

 

Millions of ATP are produced every second by each cell.

Term
What are enzymes and some of their general characteristics?
Definition
Enzymes are catlysists that speed up reactions. They are not consumed in a reaction and are very specific for their substrate.
Term
What is Nutrasweet made of? Why does this matter to people with PKU?
Definition

It is made of phenylalanine and aspartic acid.

 

This matters because patients lack the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, which converts phenylalanine to tyrosine. The buildup of phenylalanine can be toxic.

Term
What is a substrate? Where does it bind on the enzyme?
Definition
The substrate is a molecule that binds to the active site of an enzyme for a reaction.
Term
What causes enzyme specificity?
Definition
The unique proteins shape of the enzyme
Term
What is activation energy? What is the 'peak' state called?
Definition

It is energy required to start a reaction.

 

The state at the 'peak' of an energy graph is called the "transition state"

Term
What effect do enzymes have on the activiation energy?
Definition
Enzymes lower the activation energy or Ea.
Term
How do enzymes lower the activation energy?
Definition

They bring reactants together

Stress bonds to be broken

Provide the proper environment

Participate direcly in the reaction

Term
What is the catylitic cycle?
Definition
  1. Substrates enter the active site
  2. Substrates are held in active site by weak interactions
  3. Active site can lower Ea and speed up a reaction
  4. Substrates are converted into products
  5. Products are released
  6. Active site is available for new substrate molecules
Term
What are factors that affect enzymes?
Definition

Temperature

pH

Cofactors

Term
What are enzyme cofactors? What are some examples?
Definition

They assist the enzyme in reactions. They are called coenzymes if they are organic.

 

Ex. Metal ions, vitamins

Term
What are the two major groups of enzyme inhibition?
Definition

Competative inhibition

 

Noncompetative inhibition

Term
What is competative enzyme inhibition? Give an example.
Definition

When another molecules binds to the active site and blocks the way for the intended substrate.

 

Ex. Penicillin, which blocks the active site of and enzyme for cell wall synthesis.

Term
What is noncompetative enzyme inhibition? How does it work?
Definition

When an molecule binds to a site other than the active site on an enzyme. This is called "allosteric regulation."

 

It is accomplished because the molecule alters the protein configuration of the enzyme, rendering it inactive.

Term
What is enzyme cooperativity?
Definition
When the binding of substrate to one subunit facilitates substrate binding to other subunits.
Term
What is feedback inhibition?
Definition
With enzymes, it is when the product shuts down the reaction that produced it. This is useful because it prevent too much product from accumulating.
Term
Are cellular respiration and photosynthesis catabolic or anabolic?
Definition

Cellular respiration is catabolic

 

Photosynthesis is anabolic

Term
What are Redox reactions? What does each part mean?
Definition

Redox reactions are oxidation-reduction reactions.

 

Oxidation is the loss of electrons

Reduction is the gain of electrons

 

Oxidations and reductions happen together

Term
What is an oxidating agent? What is a reducing agent? Give an example of each.
Definition

Oxidating agents accept electrons.

Ex. Oxygen

 

Reducing agents donate electrons

Ex. Glucose

Term
Describe NAD+
Definition

NAD+ is a coenzyme made from the vitamin nacin.

 

It is an oxidizing agent (it accepts electrons).

 

It reduces to NADH and stores energy.

Term
Name 3 important coenzymes.
Definition

NAD+

 

NADP

 

FAD

Term
What does photosynthesis do? Where does it occur?
Definition

It converts light to chemical energy. (A 3-Carbon sugar that can easily be made into glucose)

 

It takes place in the choloroplasts, but is not limited to only plants.

Term
What are stomata? What is mesophyll?
Definition

Stomata are pores on the surface of the leaf that are used for gas exchage.

 

Mesophyll is tissue inside of a leaf that contains chloroplasts.

 

Term
What does the light reaction take in? What does it produce? Where does it take place?
Definition

It takes in water, light, NADP+, and ADP

 

It produces oxygen, ATP, NADPH

 

The light reaction takes place in the thylakoid membrane.

Term
What does the Cavlin Cycle take in? What does it produces? Where does it take place? What is another name for the Calvin Cycle?
Definition

The Calvin cycle takes in ATP, NADPH, and carbon dioxide.

 

It produces NADP+, ADP, and sugar (CH2O).

 

It is also called the dark cycle and takes place in the stroma.

Term
What are the parts of cholorplasts? Briefly describe each.
Definition

Thylakoid: Flattened disks

 

Granum:Stack of thylakoid disks

 

Stroma: Matrix outside the thylakoids

Term
What is wavelength? What is the range of visible light?
Definition

Wavelenght is the distance between crests (measured in nanometers).

 

Visible light is between 380-750 nm.

Term
Generally, which wavelengths of light have high energy? Low energy?
Definition

Short wavelengths have high energy.

 

Long wavelengths have low energy.

Term
What parts of plants can undergo photosynthesis?
Definition
ALL green parts of plants can undergo photosynthesis.
Term
What 3 things can happen to light?
Definition
It can be absorbed, transmitted, or reflected.
Term
Why are leaves green?
Definition
We see colors that are reflected, and cholorphyll reflects and transmits green light.
Term
What are the three major types of cholorplast pigments? What do they do and what colors are they?
Definition

Chlorophyll a: It directly participates in light reactions. It is blue-green.

 

Cholorphyll b: It indirectly participates in light reactions. It is olive-green.

 

Carotenoids: Used for photoprotection (but can minimally help in photosynthesis). They are yellow and orange.

Term
Why do leaves change colors?
Definition
In the fall, the green cholorphyll is broken down, revealing the red/yellow/orange caratenoids.
Term
How is light energy captured?
Definition
The light is absorbed by pigments within the cell.
Term
Describe the excitation of chlorophyll.
Definition
  1. A photo of light is absorbed.
  2. The electron is moved from its ground state to a more excitied, unstable state.
  3. The electron rapidly returns to the ground state.
  4. Energy is then transferred to another molecule (or lost as heat or fluorescence).
Term
What do photosystems do? What are their two major parts?
Definition

Photosystems capture excitied electrons.

 

Their two major parts are light-harvesting complexes and reaction center complexes.

Term
What does the light-harvesting complex include? What does it do?
Definition

It includes a cluster of protein and pigment molecules.

 

The light-harvesting complex transfers energy to the reaction center complex.

Term
What does the reaction-center compex include? What does it do?
Definition

It includes a pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor.

 

The reaction-center complex can transfer an electron to an electron transport chain.

Term
What are the two photosystems in cholorplasts? What wavelength of light do they absorb best?
Definition

Photosystem II (PS II): It absorbs 680 nm wavelength best.

 

Photosystem I (PS I): It absorbs 700 nm wavelength best.

Term
In photosystem II, what donates electrons? What does that reaction produce?
Definition
Water is split to harvest electrons, which produces two hydrogen ions (H+) and half of an oxygen (O2).
Term
What is ATP synthesized by?
Definition
Chemiosmosis
Term
What is the flow of electrons in the photosystem II and the first electron transport chain? Name all molecules involved.
Definition

Light energy and electrons from water are both taken by P680.

 

P680 is oxidzied and its electrons are transfered to the primary electron acceptor, reducing it.

 

Electrons are transfered to Pq, then to the Cytochrome complex(where ATP is produced), then to Pc.

 

Term
What is the flow of electrons in the photosystem I and the first electron transport chain? Name all molecules involved.
Definition

Light energy from pigment molecules and electrons from Pc are taken by P700.

 

P700 is the oxidized, giving up its electrons to the primary electron acceptor, reducing it.

 

Electrons are then transfered to Fd to NADP+ reductase where NADP+ is combined with H+ and two electrons to form NADPH.

Term
What is chemiosmosis?
Definition

When a hydrogen ion gradient is used to do work?

Such as in the synthesis of ATP by ATP synthase.

 

It is important for cellular respiration.

Term
What are the Calvin cycle phases? What does it produce?
Definition

The phases are: Carbon fixation, reduction of sugar, and regeneration of carbon-dioxide acceptor.

 

It produces G3P (Glyceraldahyde-3-phosphate).

Term
Describe the carbon fixation stage of the calvin cycle?
Definition

CO2 is attached to RuBP, which is catalyzed by the enzyme rubisco.


The resulting 6C sugar is unstable and splits into two 3C sugars.

Term
Describe the reduction of sugar stage of the calvin cycle?
Definition

3C sugars are phosphorylated by ATP.

 

3C sugars are reduced by NADPH.

 

One of the 3C sugars is the output G3P

Term
Describe the regeneration phase of the calvin cycle?
Definition

Five G3P molecules are rearragnged using ATP.

 

Three RuBP are formed.

Term
How many CO2 enter the Calvin cycle? How many net G3P are produced?
Definition
For every three CO2 entering the calvin cycle, one net G3P is produced.
Term
What is the fate of the G3P produced during the Calvin cycle?
Definition

They are transported to the cytosol by antiporting (traveling oppositely) with Pi.

 

They are then converted to glucose or sucrose.

Term
What are the two types of plants with different methods of carbon fixation? How is CO2 fixed in each? Give some examples of each.
Definition

C3 Plants: Rubisco intitially fixes CO2 into a 3C compound called 3PG.

Ex. rice, wheat, and soybeans.

 

C4 Plants:Rubisco initially fixes CO2 into a 4C compound called Oxaloacetate.

Ex. sugarcane, corn, grasses.

Term
What is photorespiration? i.e. when is it used, what are its results?
Definition

Photorespiration occurs on hot, dry days. Plants close their stomata, which makes less CO2 available for the Calvin cycle.

 

Rubisco adds O2 instead of CO2 to RuBP and the product will be converted into CO2.

 

No sugar is made, but ATP is used.

Term
When and by what type of plants is photorespiration extensively used?
Definition
Photorespiration is used extensively by C3 plants on hot dry days.
Term
Describe C4 plants.
Definition

They do not use photorespiration extensively because they are adapted for high heat and sunlight.

 

They utilize bundle sheath and mesophyll cells.

Term
What do mesophyll cells do? What do bundle sheath cells do?
Definition

Mesophyll cells help increase CO2 in bundle sheath cells.

 

Bundle sheat cells can utilize CO2 for the Calvin cycle.

Term
What are CAM plants? Give some examples.
Definition

CAM (Crassulacean acid metabolism) plants are water storing desert plants.

 

Ex. Succulents, cacti, pineapples.

Term
What do CAM plants do regarding CO2?
Definition

They open their stomata at night and fix CO2 to an organic acid.


During the day they close their somata and utilize that organic acid for CO2.

Term
What do both CAM and C4 plants do?
Definition
They both fix CO2 to an organic acid. That organic acid then releases CO2 to the Calvin cycle.
Term
What are the three major parts of cellular respiration? Who is this pathway very important for?
Definition

Glycolysis

Citric Acid Cycle

Oxidative Phosphorylation

 

This is important for baskeball players.

Term
Breifly describe Glycolysis.
Definition

Glucose is oxidized to pyruvate.

 

NADH and ATP are formed.

 

It takes place in the cytosol.

Term
Breifly describe the Citric Acid cycle.
Definition

Pyruvate derivative is oxidzied to CO2.

 

NADH, FADH2, and ATP are formed.

 

It takes place in the Mitochonria.

Term
Breifly describe Oxidative Phosphorylation.
Definition

The electron transport chain creates a gradient.

 

This gradient is used for form ATP.

 

It takes place in the mitochondria.

Term
What does glycolysis mean? What are its two major phases? What does it yield?
Definition

Glycolysis means "Sugar splitting."

 

Its two major phases are energy investment and energy payoff.

 

It yields 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH.

Term
What are 3 enzymes involved in glycolysis? What do they do?
Definition

[Phospho]kinase: Catalyzes transfer of phosphate from ATP to a secondary substrat.


Isomerase: Converts molecules into their positional isomers.

 

Dehydrogenase: Transfers a hydrogen ion to an electron acceptor, such as NAD+.

Term
How is phosphofructo-kinase regulated in glycolysis?
Definition

It is allosterically regulated.

 

Term
During energy payoff, how many G3P enter for each glucose?
Definition
Two G3P enter for each glucose.
Term
In glycolysis, how is ATP formed during the energy payoff phase?
Definition
It is formed through substrate level phosphorylation.
Term
What is substrate level phosphorylation? Where does it occur?
Definition

When a phosphate group from an organic molecule is used to make ATP.

 

It occurs in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.

Term
What happens before the citric acid cycle begins?
Definition

Pyruvate enters the mitochondria via active transport.

 

Pyruvate is converted into acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl coA).

Term
Who was the citric acid cycle discovered by? What does it begin and end with?
Definition

It was discovered by Hans Kreb.

 

It begins and ends with oxaloacetate.

Term
How many enzyme mediated steps are in the citric acid cycle? Where does it occur?
Definition

There are 8 enzyme mediated steps.

 

It occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.

Term
What do the pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle result in?
Definition

4 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP

 

(Remember that two pyruvate were formed for each glucose)

Term
How many net ATP are made by substrate level phosphorylation?
Definition

Only 4 net ATP are produced via substrate level phosphorylation.

 

(Most of the energy from glucose is in NADH and FADH2)

Term
What are the two parts of oxidative phosphorylation?
Definition

The Electron Transport Chain

and

Chemiosmosis

Term
Where does the electron transport chain occur and why? Give a basic overview of the ETC.
Definition

The ETC occurs on the inner mitochonrial matrix because of its high surface area.

 

Electrons are passed through the ETC and energy is slowly released. The movement of electron is coupled with H+ ions and the H+ ions are pumped across the membrane.

Term
What are the components of the ETC?
Definition

Complexes I-IV: They contain proteins and prosthetic groups.

 

Mobile Electron Carriers: Ubiquinone (Q) and Cytochrome c (Cyt c).

 

Final Electron Acceptor: Oxygen (because it is very electronegative)

Term
Why do we need to breath in oxygen?
Definition
To supply it to the electron transport chain.
Term
What happens in ETC complex I?
Definition

Electrons pass from NADH to FMN. NAD+ is oxidized, FMN is reduced.

 

Electrons pass from FMN to Fe*S. FMN is oxidized, Fe*S is reduced.

Term
What happens to the NADH electrons?
Definition

Fe*S electrons transfer to Q, which carries electrons to complex III.

 

Electrons move through the ETC until they reach oxygen.

Term
What happens at ETC complex II?
Definition

Electrons pass from FADH2 to FAD, then from FAD to Fe*S.

 

Electrons are then tranferred to Q and moved on through the ETC to oxygen.

Term
What is the point of the electron transport chain?
Definition

As electron move through the ETC, protons are pumped across the membrane.

 

The resulting H+ gradient is used to form ATP.

Term
What caused the indroduction of tamper-proof packaging?
Definition
The Tylenol Cyanide murder that killed 7 people and resulted in the nationwide recall of the drug.
Term
What does Cyanide do?
Definition
Cyanide inhibits cytochrome oxidase, which shuts down the ETC complex IV and prevents the cells from making ATP.
Term
Describe ATP synthase. What does it do?
Definition

It is a multiprotein complex in embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

 

H+ ions move through the enzyme down their concentration gradient. This activates the catylitic portion that form ATP from ADP and Pi.

Term
How much ATP does one molecule of glucose create through cellular respiration? Where is most of the ATP created?
Definition

The maximum amount of ATP that is produced is about 36 or 38 ATP.

 

Most of that (32 or 34) is produced via the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.

Term
What are the two ways ATP is produced without oxygen? How are each of these similar/different from cellular respiration?
Definition

Anaerobic Respiration: Involves an ETC, but not oxygen.

Ex. Some marine bacteria use SO4^(2-)

 

Fermentation: Does not involve an ETC or oxygen. ATP is produced by substrate level phosphorylation.

Term
What does fermentation include? What are the major types?
Definition

It includes glycolysis to form 2 ATP and reactions to regnerate NAD+.

 

The two major types are alcohol and lactic acid fermentation.

Term
What does alcohol fermentation do? What is it important for?
Definition

It converts pyruvate into ethanol and regenerates NAD+.

 

It is important for baking, brewing beer, and making wine.

Term
What does lactic acid fermentation do? When/where is it used in animals? What is it important for?
Definition

It converts pyruvate into lactate and regenerates NAD+.

 

It is used in muscle cells when oxygen levels are low.

 

It is important for making cheese and yogurt.

Term
What are the two types of anaerobes? What do they do?
Definition

Obligate: Only perform fermentation OR anerobic respiration.

 

Facultative: Can perform fermentation or anerobic respiration.

Term
What is the main way in which cellular respiration is regulated? i.e. How and by what?
Definition
Allosteric regulation, AKA feedback regulation, of phosphofructokinase by ATP.
Term
What is the main difference between cellular respiration and photosynthesis?
Definition
Cellular respiration used electrons from NADH, while photosynthesis uses electron that are excited from a photon (and replaced by splitting water).
Term
Define mitosis and cytokinesis.
Definition

Mitosis: Nuclear division

 

Cytokinesis: Cytoplasmic division

Term
What are the 3 general phases of cellular division?
Definition

Reproduction

 

Growth and Development

 

 Tissue Renewal

Term
What are the two major phases of cell division? What are they broken up into?
Definition

Interphase: G1, S, G2, G0

 

M Phase: Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Term
Where does mitosis occur? How is the DNA divided?
Definition

Mitosis occurs in somatic cells (non-reproductive cells).

 

The replicated DNA is divided equally in mitosis. One of each chromosome is distributed to each nuclei.

Term
What is the chromosome number? How many chromosomes do human somatic cells have?
Definition

The total number of chromosomes in a cell.

 

Human somatic cells have 46 (23 pairs).

Term
How many sets of chromomes do diploid organisms have? How many daugher cells are produced during mitosis? Is the chromosome number maintained?
Definition

Diploid organisms have two sets of chromosomes.

 

During mitosis, a diploid parent cells produce two diploid daugher cells.

 

The chromosome number is maintained.

Term
In which phase are chromosomes duplicated? What does this result in and what are their important structures?
Definition

They are duplicated in the S phase, resulting in two sister chromatids.

 

Centromeres: The region that joins the sister chromatids.

 

Kinetochore: Stuctures to which the mitotic spindle connects.

Term
What are the 6 stages of mitosis?
Definition

Prophase

Prometaphase

Metaphase

Anaphase A

Anaphase B

Telophase

Term
Where does the mitotic spindle assemble? What does it include?
Definition

It assembles at the centrosomes.

 

It also includes microtubuls (MT) and associated proteins.

Term
What are the three main types of microtubuls (MTs)?
Definition

Kinetochore

Overlapping

Asters

Term
Describe G2 of interphase.
Definition

It is not part of mitosis.

 

The nuclear envelope is present.

 

Chromosomes are not distinct.

 

Two centrosomes have been formed, but are not at the poles.

Term
Describe prophase.
Definition

The chromosomes condense.

 

Centrosomes move apart.

 

Mitotic spindle begins to form.

Term
Describe prometaphase.
Definition

Nuclear envelope breaks down.

 

Microtubules attach to chromosomes.

 

The mitotic spindle is formed.

Term
Describe metaphase.
Definition

Centrosomes are at opposite ends.

 

Chromosomes line up at metaphase plate.

 

The M phase chekpoint occurs.

Term
Describe anaphase A.
Definition

Proteins holding together sister chromatids are degraded.

 

Sister chromatids move to opposite poles because of the kinetochore microtubules.

Term
In pig cells, do chromosomes move along the kinetochore microtubules or are they pulled in?
Definition

They move along the kinetocher microtubules via a motor protein.

 

In other cell types, they may be pulled in.

Term
Describe anaphase B.
Definition

Spindle poles move further apart.

 

Force exerted by non-kinetochore microtubules (Asters and overlapping).

Term
Describe telophase.
Definition

Chromosomes arrive a spindle poles.

 

Nuclear envelope reforms.

 

Chromatin fibers decondense.

Term
Describe cytokinesis in animals.
Definition

A cleavage furrow forms in the center of a cell.

 

Actin and myocin contract and the cell is pinched in two.

Term
Describe cell plate formation in plants.
Definition

Vesicles move to center to form a cell plate. 

 

Cell plate fuses with plasma membrane.

 

Cell plate helps form new cell wall.

Term
What protein holds together sister chromatids?
Definition
Cohesins.
Term
What are the two cell cycle control signals?
Definition

Kinase: Enzymes that phosphorylate proteins.

 

Cyclins: Control kinase activity.

Term
What are Cdks?
Definition
A kinase that is a "cyclin dependant kinase."
Term
What is MPF? What does it do?
Definition

Maturation promoting factor is a cyclin-Cdk complex.

 

It helps cell pass from G2 to M phase. It does this by phosphorylating proteins to activate or inhibit them.

 

Ex. MPF phosphorylates nuclear lamina to facilitate its breakdown.

Term
Describe MPF in the cell cycle?
Definition

Cdk levels remain constant.

 

Cyclin levels rise and fall.

 

MPF is only active in G2/M phase.

Term
Breifly describe what cancer cells do.
Definition

They have escaped cell cycle control.

 

They undergo excessive division and can invade other tissues.

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