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| Discovery of new information on what we can record, conserve or measure |
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| Using specific observations to form general theories Ex. Cell theory |
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| Seven steps of Scientific Method |
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| observation, question, hypothesis, prediction, perform a controlled experiment, analyze results, conclusion |
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| A hypothesis that has never been disproved after many years of rigorous testing |
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| A compound containing carbon, which makes 4 bonds usually with hydrogen, oxygen and sometimes sulfur, phosphorous and nitrogen |
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| a reaction in which water is lost to the environment. Covalent bonds are created. |
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| breaking polymers into monomers. Water has to be added to molecules from environment. |
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| simple sugars. Monosaccharides. |
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| C6H12O6 the main fuel for our cells |
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| 2 monosaccharides joined by condensation |
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| milk sugar, galactose and glucose |
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| table sugar, major sugar in plant sap, fructose and glucose |
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| malt sugar, glucose and glucose |
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| glucose polymer, glucose storage in plants |
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| glucose polymer, structural molecules for plants; aka fiber. Animals can’t hydrolyze it |
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| glucose polymer, glucose storage for animals; found in abundance in liver and muscle cells |
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| glucose polymer; structural molecules for animals with exoskeleton |
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| 'fats'. Hydrophobic. The main biological functions of lipids include energy storage, acting as structural components of cell membranes, and participating as important signaling molecules. |
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| energy storage molecule. Insulation and padding in animals. Less than 150 mg/dL |
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| an alcohol with 3 –OH groups |
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| 1 glycerol combined with 3 fatty acids |
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| Fatty acid chains containing some double bonds; therefore the chains do not pack tightly--> Liquid at room temperature, "good" fats from nutrition point of view, mainly from plants |
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| fatty acid chain lack double bonds; therefore chains pack tightly--> solid at room temperature. 'bad' from the nutrition point of view. From animals |
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| made when manufactures add hydrogen to vegetable oil-- a process called hydrogenation. |
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| are a class of lipids and are a major component of all cell membranes. They form a lipid bilayer within a cell membrane. They also transport DNA. They are amphiphilic- head likes water, tail does not. Their monomer- phosphorous head and 2 fatty acids |
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| Lipid. monomer: 1 long fatty acid and alcohol group (or alcohol chain). They are more hydrophobic than fats. |
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| monomer: 4 carbon rings and no fatty acids. |
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| Steroid found in abundance in the cell membranes of eukaryotic cells; it is a precursor to making many other important steroids |
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| Low density lipoprotein. bad cholesterol. 130mg/dL |
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| high density lipoprotein. Good cholesterol. higher than 40 mg/dL |
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| they are monomers. there are 20 different types of them. Made up of an amino group(NH3+), carboxyl group (COO-) and R group. They have different properties according to the R group they have |
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| Three or more amino acids. |
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| The amino acid sequence. held together by strong covalent peptide bonds. |
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| Held together by weak hydrogen bonds between the amino groups of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another amino acid. Could be either alpha-helix (coil) or beta-pleated (folds) |
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| held together by unique interactions between R-groups. often used for transport. Fibrous proteins consist mostly of alpha helices. Globular proteins consist of mix between alpha-helices and beta plates sheets. |
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| must be interaction between 2 or more polypeptide sub-units. |
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| change in first structure of a protein. |
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| misfolded protein that is resistant to normal cellular degradation in the brain cells and has the ability to convert nomal folding protein into this misfolded type. If a cell becomes clogged with them, neurons die. Ex. mad cow disease, OJD, scrapie. |
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| structural, contractile(changing shape and causes contractions) , storage of amino acids, defensive, transport, signaling, enzymes. |
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| made up of nucleotides.made up of deoxyribose (sugar) a negatively charged phosphate group, and one of the 4 nitrogen bases (Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine). Has a double helix structure (2 polynucleotides wrapped around each other). Adenine to thymine, and guanine to cytosine. |
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| nucleotides made up of ribose(sugar), phosphate group, and one of 4 nitrogenous bases (adenine, uracil, guanine, cytosine). Single stranded, 1 polynucleotide. |
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| plasma membrane, hereditary material (DNA), and cytoplasm (water-based semi-fluid). Cell size is constrained by the surface area to volume ratio. |
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| Used to describe the cell membrane. fluid- very flexible. mosaic- made up also of proteins, phospholipids, cholesterol, glycol (sugar) proteins, glycolipid |
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| "before kernel" No nucleus. Surface projections, cell wall, capsule, plasma membrane, chromosome, ribosomes |
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| made up of rRNA (ribosomal) and proteins. They catalyze the formation of peptide bonds during translation. |
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| 1/2 major groups of prokaryotic cells. "true bacteria" |
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| more complex than eubacteria, live in extreme environments (very salty, hot, or methane environ.) |
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| 'true kernel'. have nucleus |
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| all of the cell's linear chromosomes. Humans have 46 chromosomes. |
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| Nuclear envelope for eukaryotic cells |
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| two phospholipid bilayers and large pores. |
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| Rough Endoplasmatic Reticulum(RER) |
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| Stacked, flattened discs of membrane, continuous, with ribosomes. Proteins being made at RER ribosomes are inserted into RER for folding. |
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| Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum |
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| SER. has no ribosomes. continuous with the RER, has tubular membranes. They use enzymes to synthesize lipids. These lipids can be attached to proteins, used to make hormones, used to make new membranes, and to detoxify liver |
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| flattened stacks of membrane, not continuous with the ER. They are responsible for the the chemical modification from the ER. |
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| Membrane-enclosed vesicle. It holds the digestive enzymes. |
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| in plants. One very large vesicle, used for the storage of ions, sugars and amino acids. |
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| Path from proteins to outside |
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| nucleus--> rough ER--> smooth ER--> golgi body-->out of cell |
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| They are responsible for the proteins that are staying inside the cells |
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| all eukaryotic cells have them. They transfer the energy in carbohydrates to ATP (cellular energy)in the presence of oxygen.Structure- inner and outer membranes, intermembrane material is called matrix, folds of the inner membrane are called cristae |
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In plants and some protists. they trap sunlight with photosynthetic pigments to make carbohydrates. [image] |
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| in cytoskeleton. Long, hollow cylinders; made of tubulin subunits (proteins). "railroad track" for organelles and chromosomes. they can assemble and disassemble. |
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| two coiled strands of actin subunits (protein). Responsible for general cell movement, cell pinching during cell division in animal cells. they can assemble and disassemble. |
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| ropelike, made up of various fibrous proteins. They serve as support, cages in nucleus. |
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| Flagella(long) and cilia (short) |
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| 9 + 2 doublet arrangement of microtubules |
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| the place where the flagella and cilia are anchored into the cytoplasm. The structure in cross section is 9 triplets of microtubules |
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| a motor protein. it walks along the neighboring microtubules so that they can slide past each other resulting in a whipping motion. |
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| temporary lobes that project from the cell, used in locomotion and in food capture. |
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| consist of carbohydrates. found in prokaryotes, plants and some protists. Plants have a primary cell wall made of cellulose, and some plant cells have a secondary cell made of lignin(wood). |
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in plants: pores in the cell wall for communication are called plasmodesmata.
in animals: leakproof junctions between cells(water tight) are tight junctions. Adhering junctions are "spot welds" strongly holding cells together. Open channels linking the cytoplasm of neighboring cells are gap junctions. |
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| made of phospholipid bilayer. They allow oxygen, carbondioxide, some water, and some small non-polar molecules. With the help of transporter proteins they allow large molecules(glucose), large polar molecules, ions, water soluble molecules. |
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| high to low concentration |
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| particles move spontaneously with the concentration gradient.[image] |
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| moves water from low solute concentraion to high solute concentration. |
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| low concentration of solutes |
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| high concentration of solutes |
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| equal concentration of solutes |
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| facilitated diffusion (passive transport) |
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| Uses transporter proteins to allow large or charged molecules to move through the hydrophobic core. They move with the concentration gradient. Ex. glucose uptake into cells. |
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| move molecules against concentration gradient. It requires cellular energy (ATP) and transport protein. Ex. calcium pump. |
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| membrane enclosed vesicle fuses with plasma membrane and the contents are spilled out |
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| plasma membrane invaginates and brings a vesicle into cytoplasm. |
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| cellular eating, endocytosis of large molecules |
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| endocytosis of small droplets, cellular drinking. |
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| Receptor mediated endocytosis |
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Definition
| Highly specific; an invagination forms on membrane with receptors for a specific molecule. |
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| end in "-ase". They increase the rate of reaction by lowering energy of activation barrier(the minimum amount of energy needed to start a reaction) |
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| inhibits a reaction by binding to the active site. Disallowing the substrate from binding. |
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| non-competitive inhibitor |
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Definition
| inhibitor binds to a site on the outside of the active site but can cause the active site to change shape. |
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| when a product of a reaction is also the inhibitor (in order to make more product) |
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| products have more energy than the reactants. |
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| energy out--> products have less energy than the reactants |
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| cellular energy. they spend energy during endergonic reactions and gain energy during exergonic reactions. They are made up of adenine, ribose, and 3 phosphates. The last phosphate can be hydrolyzed. ADP+P-->ATP |
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| Reaction where energy releasing pathways begin. They occur in the cytoplasm and they split up 1 glucose to produce 2 molecules of pyruate. Small amounts of ATP are generated, as well as NADH. |
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| main energy-releasing pathway leading to ATP formation; it occurs in the mitochondria |
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| Fermentation Pathways (anaerobic respiration) |
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| can release small quantities of energy without the use of oxygen; they occur in the cytoplasm. |
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| degrades pyruvate to carbon dioxide; ATP is produced; and the electron shttlers NAD+ and FAD, accept H+ and e- to be carried to the electron transfer chain. 6 carbon molecule is rearranged, two CO2 are release, 2H+ 4 e- are transferred to 2 NAD+ to become 2 NADH |
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| Electron transfer posphorylation |
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Definition
| processes the H+ and electrons to generate high yields of ATP; the final electron acceptor is oxygen. |
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