Term
| What are the 5 most abundant elements in the human body (in order highest->lowest)? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What 6 elements make up 1% of the human body? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How do you find the atomic mass of an element? |
|
Definition
| Add its protons and neutrons |
|
|
Term
| How do you find the atomic number of an element? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name 4 ways in which carbon skeletons can vary |
|
Definition
| Length, branching, double bonds, rings |
|
|
Term
| What function does the shape of isomers server? |
|
Definition
| Shapes result in unique properties and add diversity to organic molecules |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 main classes of molecules of living things? |
|
Definition
| Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids |
|
|
Term
| Define: Dehydration Reaction |
|
Definition
| Removes a molecule of water, for each monomer added to a polymer chain, water molecule released |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Opposite of dehydration, bond between monomers broken by addition of water molecule |
|
|
Term
| Name the 6 chemical groups discussed in the text |
|
Definition
| Hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amine, phosphate, methyl |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Tendancy of molecules of the same kind to stick together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Clinging of one substance to another |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| How difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid |
|
|
Term
| What is a polysaccaride made of? |
|
Definition
| Many monosaccarids linked by dehydration reactions. |
|
|
Term
| Provide three examples of polysaccarides and describe where they are found |
|
Definition
| Starch (storage, glucose monomers only) Glycogen (animal storage, highly branched) Cellulose (most abundant on earth, plant cell wall, parallel arrangement of H bonds) |
|
|
Term
| Describe the structure of Lipids |
|
Definition
| Hydrophobic, C/H nonpolar covalent bonds |
|
|
Term
| How are triglycerides different from unsaturated fats? |
|
Definition
| Unsaturated fats are unsaturated with carbons, so they are unstable at room temperature. |
|
|
Term
| Why is hydrogenization undesirable? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Describe the structure of Proteins |
|
Definition
| Polymer of amino acids, R group determines proterties |
|
|
Term
| Why can a fever by dangerous at high temperatures? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Location (nuc, nuc/cyto), function (directions for replication, translates instructions), Both: phosphate group+sugar+base, CGAT, polynucleotide built of monomers |
|
|
Term
| Why are larger cells not necessarily better? |
|
Definition
| Lower surface area relative to volume |
|
|
Term
| How does the plasma membrane keep out water while allowing O, CO2 in? |
|
Definition
| Phosphlipid bilayer - with hydrophillig heads on the outside and hydrophobic tails on the inside, but nonpolar molecules can move across (O, CO2) |
|
|
Term
| Which organelles are responsible for manufacturing, distributing, breaking down molecules? |
|
Definition
| ER, golgi, lysosomes, vacuoles, peroxisomes |
|
|
Term
| Which organelles are responsible for genetic control? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which organelles are responsible for energy? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which organelles are responsible for structural support? |
|
Definition
| Cytoskeleton, plasma membrane, cell wall |
|
|
Term
| What do plant cells have that animal cells don’t? |
|
Definition
| Chloroplasts, large centra vecole, cell wall, plasmodia |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of smooth ER? |
|
Definition
| Enzymes important to lipid synthesis, process drugs/alcohol, stores Calcium ions |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of rough ER? |
|
Definition
| Make more ER, bound ribosomes produce proteins that will be inserted into ER, transported to other organelles or secreted by cell |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the golgi? |
|
Definition
| 1 side is dock for transport vesicles (fuse with sac), products of ER modified during transit, on shipping side, vesicles bud off and travel |
|
|
Term
| What are the function of lysosomes? |
|
Definition
| Digestive enzyme sac, fuse with food vacole and digest, fuse with damanged vacuole and digest |
|
|
Term
| What are the function of vacoles? |
|
Definition
| Collect/dispel water, digestive and pigments (plants), contain harmful components, stockpile chemicals |
|
|
Term
| What are the function of peroxisomes? |
|
Definition
| Break down fatty acids, detox alcohol, enzymes transfer H to oxygen and others convert to water |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the mitocondria? |
|
Definition
| Cellular respiration, sugars->ATP, folds increase surface area, 2 phospolipid bilayers |
|
|
Term
| Name some of the functions of membrane proteins |
|
Definition
| Maintain shape, coordinate changes (inside/outside cell), receptor (chemical messengers), cell-cell recognition, interceullar junctions, selective permeability |
|
|
Term
| Define; Passive Transport |
|
Definition
| Two substances diffuse independantly, cell does not have to work |
|
|
Term
| Define: Dynamic Equillibrium |
|
Definition
| Molecules move back and forth, no net change in concentration |
|
|
Term
| What is the method by which O enters cells and CO2 leaves cells |
|
Definition
| Diffusion down a concentration gradient |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or loose water |
|
|
Term
| What factors determine tonicity? |
|
Definition
| concentation of solutes that cannot cross the plasma membrane relatove to concentration of solutes inside cell |
|
|
Term
| What are thre three types of cell "states" in terms of tonicity? |
|
Definition
| Isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic |
|
|
Term
| What effect do the three tonicity states have on animal and plant cells? |
|
Definition
| Plant cells are flacid in iso, nomal in hyper, animal cells are equal in iso and burst in hypo, both shrivel in hyper |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does the number of transport proteins determine? |
|
Definition
| Permeability to a substance |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Cell uses energy to move a solute against its concentration gradient (low to high) |
|
|
Term
| How does ATP power active transport? |
|
Definition
| Solute attaches to binding site, ATP xfers P group to xfer protein, protein changes shape and solute released, P group detarches, xport protein original size |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of mater |
|
|
Term
| What is the 1st law of thermodynamics |
|
Definition
| energy can be transferred/transformed but it cannot be created or destroyed |
|
|
Term
| What is the 2nd law of thermodynamics |
|
Definition
| energy transformations result in the universe becoming more disordered |
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of energy? |
|
Definition
| Kinetic, chemical, potential |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Energy that matter posesses as a result of its location or structure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| motion, moving objects can perform work by transferring motion (heat, light) |
|
|
Term
| Define: Exergonic chemical reaction |
|
Definition
| Releases energy. Reactants whose covalent bonds contain more energy than products |
|
|
Term
| Define: Endergonic chemical reaction |
|
Definition
| Products rich in potential energy. Start out with molecules with low potential energy absorbed from surroundings. |
|
|
Term
| Define: Metabolic Pathway |
|
Definition
| series of chemical reactions that either builds a complex molecule or breaks down one into simpler compounds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The use of energy released from exergonic reactions to drive essential endergonic reactions |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure of ATP |
|
Definition
| Three negative P groups repulse, easily broken by hydrolysis, when third breaks, P group leaves and ATP becomes ADP, energy released |
|
|
Term
| Hydrokysis of ATP is _______________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How is ADP returned to ATP? |
|
Definition
| Energy released in exergonic reactions is used to regenerate ATP from ADP |
|
|
Term
| How does ATP provide chemical energy? |
|
Definition
| phosphorylation of reactants provides energy to drive endergonic synthesis of products |
|
|
Term
| How does ATP provide mechanical energy? |
|
Definition
| transfer of phosphate groups to special motor proteins causes proteins to change and pull, causing cells to contract |
|
|
Term
| Define: Activation Energy |
|
Definition
| energy required to contort or weaken bonds in reactant molecules so that they can break and new bonds can form |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Reactant that enzyme acts on, fits into a region called the active site |
|
|
Term
| Describe the catalytic cycle |
|
Definition
| Empty site, sucrose enters->active site changes, strained bonds reat with water and substrate converted to products (glucose/fructose), enzyme releases products |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Nonprotein helpers that bind to activation site and function in catalysis |
|
|
Term
| What does a competitive inhibitor do? |
|
Definition
| reduces an enzymes productivity by blocking substrate molecules from entering the active site |
|
|
Term
| What does a noncompetitive inhibitor do? |
|
Definition
| binds to enzyme in allosteric site, changes shape of enzyme so active site no longer fits substrate |
|
|
Term
| What happens to glucose and oxygen in cellular respiration? |
|
Definition
| Glucose looses hydrogen atoms, oxygen gains hydrogen atoms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A chemical reaction in which there is a movement of electrons from one molecule to another (a reducion and an oxidization) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the function of glycosis |
|
Definition
| Reduce two molecules of NAD+ to NADH, produce two ATP |
|
|
Term
| Where does glycosis occur and what does it do? |
|
Definition
| Cytoplasmic fluid, breaks glucose into two molecules of 3 carbon compound called pyruvate |
|
|
Term
| What are the three stages of cellular respiration? |
|
Definition
| Glycosis, pyruvate oxidation/citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the citric acid cycle? |
|
Definition
| Completes breakdown of glucose to co2, supplies third stage with electrons |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of oxidative phosphorylation? |
|
Definition
| ATP produced, uses downhill fall of electrons from NADH/FADH2 to O2 to make ATP (add phosphate group to ADP) |
|
|
Term
| What happens in substrage-level phosphorylation? |
|
Definition
| Enzyyme transfers P group from substrate molecule directly to ADP, formint ATP |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the first 3 steps of the energy investment phase? |
|
Definition
| Glucose->intermediate (2 ATP invested), molecule becomes more reactive |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the 4th step in the energy investment phase? |
|
Definition
| Intermediate breaks into two 3-C intermediates, 2 molecules emerge, enter step 5 |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the 5th step in the energy payoff phase? |
|
Definition
| Redoc reaction generates NADH, two H atoms, NAD+ reduced to NADH. Releases enough energy to attach P group to substrate |
|
|
Term
| What happens in th last 3 steps in the energy payoff phase? |
|
Definition
| Four chemical reactions produces 2 molecules of pyruvate for each initial glucose, 4 ATP by SLP |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Compounds that form between the initial reactant, glucose, and the final product, pyruvate |
|
|
Term
| What happens to the pyruvate before it undergoes the citric acid cycle? |
|
Definition
| -COO removed, given off as CO2. 2-carbon compound oxidized, NAD+ reduced to NADH. Coenzyme A joins with 2-carbon group to form acetyl CoA, needed next |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the first step of the citric acid cycle? |
|
Definition
| Enzymes strip CoA from aCoA, combine rest with 4-C molecule already present in mitochondria. Product is 6-C citrate |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the middle steps of the citric acid cycle? |
|
Definition
| Redux reactions harvest energy by stripping H atms from intermediaries and producing NADH. 2 places, loose CO2. SLP, 4-C compound emerges at end. |
|
|
Term
| What happens at the end of the citric acid cycle? |
|
Definition
| Enzymes rearrange bonds, regenerating oxalocetate. Redox reactions reduce FAD/NAD+ to FADH2/NADH. |
|
|
Term
| How does Oxidative phosphorylation use the concept of structure fitting function? |
|
Definition
| Arrangement of electron carriers makes it possible to create an H+ concentration gradient across the membrane then use the energy to drive ATP synthesis |
|
|
Term
| How do the electron carriers in O.P. form an energy staircase? |
|
Definition
| All carriers bind and release electrons in redoc reactions, passing them down. Three protein complexes use the energy to transport H+ across membrane (against gradient) |
|
|
Term
| How does the energy staircase create ATP? |
|
Definition
| The H+ concentration gradient energy triggers catalytic sites that attach P groups to ADP, generating ATP. ATP synthase: worlds smallest rotary motor |
|
|
Term
| Describe the structure of a chloroplast |
|
Definition
| Membranes encolse inner compartment filled with stroma, tkylaoids enclose thylakoid space in sacs called grana |
|
|
Term
| Describe the experimens that proved the O from photosynthes comes from water |
|
Definition
| Plants were given CO2/water containing an isotope, and either gave up none as gas or gave up gas, showing where the isotope went (with the oxygen) |
|
|
Term
| What happens to CO2 and water in photosynthesis? |
|
Definition
| CO2 reduced to sugar, Water oxidized to oxygen (endergonic) |
|
|
Term
| What happens to CO2 and water in cellular respiration? |
|
Definition
| CO2 oxidized, water reduced (exergonic) |
|
|
Term
| What does NADPH do, compared to NAHD? |
|
Definition
| Temporarily stores electrons and hydrogen ions and provides reducing power to the Calvin cycle |
|
|
Term
| What do the light reactions include? |
|
Definition
| Steps that convert light energy to chemical energy and release oxygen |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the light reactions? |
|
Definition
| Water is split, providing electron source and giving off oxygen, light energy is used to drive transfer of electrons and H+ from water to NADP+, reducing to NADPH |
|
|
Term
| Where do the calvin cycle and light reactions take place? |
|
Definition
| Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma, light reactions occur in thylakoids |
|
|
Term
| Summarize the calvin cycle |
|
Definition
| Carbon fixation, enzymes of cycle make sugars by reducing carbon components |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the calvin cycle? |
|
Definition
| Series of reactions that assembles sugar molecules using CO2 and energy (product of light reactions) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Incorporation of carbon from CO2 into organic compounds entering calvin cycke |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the potential energy of a concentration gradient of hydrogen ions (H+) across a membrane powers ATP synthesis |
|
|
Term
| Describe how Chemisomosis works |
|
Definition
| Excited electrons passed down, H atoms pumped into thylakoid space, concentration gradient. Gradient drives H cations across membrane through ATP synthase, couples flow of H cations to phosphorylation of ADP |
|
|
Term
| What are the inputs and outputs of the calvin cycle? |
|
Definition
| Input: CO2 and ATP/NADPH from air, output:energy rich carbon sugar 3GP leaves cycle, remaning 5 rearranced, using energy from ATP to regenerate molecules of RuBP |
|
|
Term
| Define: Asexual Reproduction |
|
Definition
| Creation of a genetically identical offspring by a single parent without the participation of sperm and egg |
|
|
Term
| Describe the process of binary fission |
|
Definition
| Chromosome duplicating, copies move to poles, cell elongates, duplication complete, 2x initial size, plasma membrane grows inward and more cell wall made, dividing into two daughter cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The normal state of chromosomes, too thin to be seen using a light microscope |
|
|
Term
| What happens during interphase? |
|
Definition
| High metabolic activity, cell performs functions within organism, makes more cytoplasm, increases supply of proteins, grows in size, creates more organelles |
|
|
Term
| What are the phases of interphase? |
|
Definition
| G1 (cell grows), S (chromosomes are duplicated), G2 (cell grows and prepares for mitosis) |
|
|
Term
| List the phases of mitosis in order |
|
Definition
| Prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase/cytokinesis |
|
|
Term
| What happens during miotic prophase? |
|
Definition
| Sister chromatids appear, miotic spindle forms as microtubes grow from centrosomes, which move away from each other |
|
|
Term
| What happens during miotic prometaphase? |
|
Definition
| Nuclear envelope disappears, microtubes emerging from centrosomes at poles, sister chromatid has kinetochore, microtubes attach, protein motors force chromosomes to center |
|
|
Term
| What happens during miotic metaphase? |
|
Definition
| Miotic spindle formed, chrosomes on plate with centromeres lined up |
|
|
Term
| What happens during miotic anaphase? |
|
Definition
| Sister chromatids separate, motor proteins pull chromosomes to poles (ATP powered), spindle microtubes shorten, poles move far apart, elongating cell |
|
|
Term
| What happens during miotic telophase? |
|
Definition
| When chromosomes have reached poles, elongation continues, daughter nuclei appear, nucelar envelopes form, reverse prophase, chromatin fiber uncoils |
|
|
Term
| What happens during miotic cytokinesis in animal cells? |
|
Definition
| Clevage furrow, cell pinches, cytoplasm has ring of microfilaments od actin associated with molecules of myosin, when actin interact with myosin, ring contracts |
|
|
Term
| What happens during miotic cytokinesis in plant cells? |
|
Definition
| Membranous vesicles containing cell wall material collect at middle, vesicles fuse (cell plate) grows out, membrane fuses with plasma membrane |
|
|
Term
| How many chromosomes does a somatic cell have normally and during metaphase? |
|
Definition
| Normally: 46, Metaphase: 23 |
|
|
Term
| How are sister chromatids different from homologous chromosomes? |
|
Definition
| Sister chromatids identical, attached at centrometer (look like X) Homologous chromosomes are paired chromosomes, which look like | | in meiosis I |
|
|
Term
| How is prophase I different from prophase? |
|
Definition
| Synapsis: homolgous chromosomes come together as pairs, crossing over occurs, tetrad. Spindle forms as centrosomes move away |
|
|
Term
| How is metaphase I different from metaphase? |
|
Definition
| Tetrads align, held together at sites of crossing over, each sister chromatid pulled in opposite direction |
|
|
Term
| How is prometaphase I different from prometaphase? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How is telophase I different from telophase? |
|
Definition
| Each pole has haploid set, result is two haploid daughter cells |
|
|
Term
| What happens in prophase II? |
|
Definition
| Spindle forms, moves chromosomes towards middle |
|
|
Term
| What happens in metaphase II? |
|
Definition
| Chromosomes aligned, kintochores pointing towards opposite ends |
|
|
Term
| What happens in anaphase II? |
|
Definition
| Centromers of sister chromatids separate, sister chromatid of each pair now individual daughter chromosome, move to opposite poles |
|
|
Term
| What happens in telophase II? |
|
Definition
| Nuclei form at poles, cytokinesis occurs, now four daughter cells, each with haploid number of single chromosomes |
|
|
Term
| List some differences between mitosis/meiosis |
|
Definition
| Mitosis is asexual, for growth, produces 2 identical daughter cells, one division produces 2 cells. Meiosis involves tatrads, crossing over, and produces 4 haploid cells |
|
|
Term
| List some simmilarities between mitosis/meiosis |
|
Definition
| Chromosomes duplicate once in S phase, meiosis II is mitosis, with different end result |
|
|
Term
| Define: Independent Orientation |
|
Definition
| Orientation of pairs of homologous chromsomes at metaphase I is 50-50, for any species total number of combinations of chromosomes possible is 2n and Zygote is 2n x 2n |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Crossing over site, where two homologous chromatids are attached |
|
|
Term
| Describe the steps of crossing over |
|
Definition
| 1) DNA molecules break at same place 2) Broken chromatids join together, segments traded 3) When they separate, each contains new segment 4) chromatids separate to gametes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transmission of traits from one generation to the next |
|
|
Term
| Why did Mendel choose Peas to study? |
|
Definition
| short gestation, large number of offspring, readily distinguishable varieties, could control mating (placing bag over plant so pollen could not reach the plant) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| heritable feature that varies among individuals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cross fertalization of two different varieties or genetic cross |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Parental generation. F1 is filial. F2 is when F1 plants self-fertalize or fertalize each other |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sperm carrying pollen grains released from stamens land on egg containing carpel of same flower |
|
|
Term
| Define: Mono Hybrid Cross |
|
Definition
| parents differ in one character only (purple + white != light purple, but 3:1 purple/white) |
|
|
Term
| What 7 characteristics did mendel study? (dominant, recessive) |
|
Definition
| Flower (axial, terminal), Seed/pod color (yellow, green), Flower color (purple, white), seed shape (round, wrinked), pod shape(inflated, deflated), stem length (tall, dwarf) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Unit Factors in Pairs (genes exist in pairs), Dominance/Recessiveness, Segregation (unit factors segregate randomly), Independent assortment (segregating pairs assort independantly) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mating between an individual of unknown genotype and a homozygous recessive individual to determine the unknown genotype. |
|
|
Term
| Define: chromosome theory of inheritance |
|
Definition
| genes occupy specific loci on chromosomes, and it is the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment during meiosis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Function, shape, bases (U/T), location, sugar has -OH attached to C in RNA |
|
|
Term
| Which pair is stronger, CG or AT and why? |
|
Definition
| CG is stronger because of an additional H bond |
|
|
Term
| What is the Semiconservative model? |
|
Definition
| when a double helix replicates, each of the two daughter molecules will have one old strand and one new strand. Half of parent molecule conserved |
|
|
Term
| What are origins of replication? |
|
Definition
| Short sites of DNA having specific sequences of nucleotides where proteins attach to the DNA and separate the strands |
|
|
Term
| How does DNA replication procede, linearly or in pieces? |
|
Definition
| In pieces/bubbles. Bubbles occur simultaneously, in the 3'-5' direction, DNA ligase pieces together sections |
|
|
Term
| What function does DNA polymerase have? |
|
Definition
| Proofreading step that removes incorrect base-pairings in DNA replication |
|
|
Term
| Why are the ends of DNA deemed 3' and 5'? |
|
Definition
| Refers to carbon atoms of nucleotide sugars, 3' end attached to -OH group, 5' end attache to phosphate group |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Synthesis of RNA under DNA direction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Synthesis of protein under RNA direction |
|
|
Term
| What did Beadle + Tatum discover? |
|
Definition
| One gene-one enzyme hypothesis - function of a gene is to dictact production of a specific enzyme (now we know: polypeptide instead of enzyme) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sequence of nucleotide bases that create an amino acid (UUU, CGU). There is some redundancy, but no ambiguity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| genetic instructions for the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide chain are written in DNA and RNA as a series of non-overlapping three base “words” called codons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| set of rules that relate codons in RNA to amino acids in proteins |
|
|
Term
| Which condons are STOP codons and START codons? |
|
Definition
| STOP: UAA UAG UGA, START: AUG |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of a promoter? |
|
Definition
| a specific binding site for RNA polymerase and determines which of the two strands is used as a template |
|
|
Term
| How does transcription occur? |
|
Definition
| In nucleus, DNA strands separate (only 1 is template), nucleotides form H bonds with bases, linked by RNA polymerase |
|
|
Term
| Name/describe the three phases of transcription |
|
Definition
| Initiation (attachment of RNA polymerase to promoter, start) Elongation (RNA grows, strand peels away) Termination (RNA polymerase reaches terminator, end) |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of mRNA? |
|
Definition
| encodes amino acid sequences; conveys genetic messages from DNA to translation machinery of cell |
|
|
Term
| What is done to the RNA after replication? |
|
Definition
| Adds cap/tail (facilitates export from nucelus, protects, helps bind with ribosome), which are not translated |
|
|
Term
| Why does RNA require RNA splicing before it leavs the nucleus? |
|
Definition
| Introns (noncoding segments) and exons (parts of gene that are expressed) need to be recombined with introns removed |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of tRNA and why is it needed? |
|
Definition
| Converts codons to amino acids, because amino acids cannot recognize codons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Picks up amino acids, uses ATP of energy to pair with base in codon (in ribosome), has site where specific amino acid can attach, gives abilitiy to match "words" |
|
|
Term
| Name the phases of translation |
|
Definition
| Initiation, Elongation, Termination |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A complementary codon triplet of mRNA, recognizes codon with base pairing rules |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of ribosomes? |
|
Definition
| Binding site for mRNA, two main sites for tRNA, act like vise, holding tRNA/mRNA together, allowing amino acids carried by tRNA to be conneced to the polypeptide chain |
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Term
| What happens in the first phase of initiation during translation? |
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Definition
| mRNA binds to ribosomal subunit and initiatior tRNA binds to start codon, initiator tRNA carries amino acid, its anticodon binds to start codon (UAC/AUG) |
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Term
| What happens in the second phase of initiation during translation? |
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Definition
| Large ribosomal submit binds to smaller, initiator tRNA fits itno one of two tRNA binding sites, P site, will hold growing polypeptide. Other site is vacant and ready for next tRNA |
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Term
| Name the three phases of elongation, in translation |
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Definition
| Codon recognition, peptide bond formation, translocation |
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Term
| Define: Codon recognition |
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Definition
| anticodon of incoming tRNA pairs with mRNA codon in A site |
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Term
| Define: Peptide bond formation |
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Definition
| polypeptide separates from tRNA, in P site, attaches by a new peptide bond to amino acid carried by tRNA in A site. Ribosome catalyzes formation of peptide bond |
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Term
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Definition
| P site tRNA leaves and ribosome moves remaining tRNA in A site to P site. Codon and anticodon remain H bonded and mRNA and tRNA move as a unit, brings into the A site the next mRNA codon |
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Term
| What happens in the final phase of translation, termination? |
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Definition
| Completed polypeptide freed from last tRNA and ribosome splits back into separate subunits |
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Term
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Definition
| formed when scientists combine nucleotide sequences from two different sources to form a single DNA molecule |
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Term
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Definition
| small circular DNA molecules that replicate separately from much large bacterial chromosome |
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Term
| How can Bacteriophages be used to serve as vectors in bacterial cloning? |
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Definition
| DNA fragments inserted into phage DNA molecules, recobinant phage DNA introduced through infection, phage GNA replicates, producing new phage particles |
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Term
| Define: Restriction Enzymes |
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Definition
| Cutting tools in DNA cloning, bacterial enzymes |
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Term
| What purpose do Restriction Enzymes serve naturally? |
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Definition
| Defence - cutting up DNA restricts the ability of an invader to do harm |
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Term
| How do Restriction Enzymes work? |
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Definition
| DNA sequence recongized by a rest. Enzyme is a restriction site, cuts strands at specific points reliably and predictably |
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Term
| How are restriction enzymes used to create recombinant DNA? |
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Definition
| Enzymes cut DNA, creating sticky ends, which can form H bonds with complementary stretches of DNA. Matching ends stick together and can be glued with DNA ligase |
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Term
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Definition
| Joints two DNA molecules by covalent bonds, catalyzes formation of bonds between adjuacent nucleotides, joining strands |
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Term
| Describe the cloning process |
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Definition
| Isolate DNA and DNA with gene of interest, treat both with enzyme, cleaves plasmid in 1 piece, leaves stickt ends that pair with target DNA, reproduces to form clone of cells carrying gene |
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Term
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Definition
| the idea that species are descendants of ancestral species that were different from those living today |
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Term
| Describe Descent with Modification |
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Definition
| as the descendants of a remote ancestor spread into various habitats over millions of years, they accumulated diverse modifications or adaptations |
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Term
| Define: Artificial Selection |
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Definition
| humans have modified other species by selecting and breeding individuals with desired traits over many generations |
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Term
| What are the two observations Darwin made (evolution)? |
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Definition
| members of a population often vary in inherited traits, all species are capable of producing more offspring than the environment can support |
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Term
| What is the first inference Darwin made (evolution)? |
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Definition
| individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend to leave more offspring than other individuals |
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Term
| What is the second inference Darwin made (evolution)? |
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Definition
| the unequal production of offspring will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in a population over generations |
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Term
| Why do populations, not individuals, evolve? |
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Definition
| The population evolves over time as adaptive traits become more common in the group and other traits change or disappear |
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Term
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Definition
| footprints, burrows or other remnants of an ancient organisms behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| sequence in which fossils appear within layers of sedimentary rocks provides evidence of evolution |
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Term
| List some evidence that supports evolution |
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Definition
| Biogeography (distribution of species), homology, homologous structures, vestial structures, DNA similarity |
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Term
| Define: Vestigial Structures |
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Definition
| remnants of features that served important functions in the organism’s ancestors |
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Term
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Definition
| when the relative frequencies of alleles in a population change over a number of generations |
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Term
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Definition
| total collection of genes in a population at any one time. Consists of all the alleles in all the individuals making up a population |
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Term
| What is the hardy-weinberge equation? |
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Definition
| P2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 (frequency of homo. Dom + freq hetero + freq homo rec = 1) |
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Term
| What conditions does the HW equation have? |
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Definition
| Large population, no gene flow, no mutations, random mating, no natural selection |
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Term
| Define: Bottleneck effect |
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Definition
| drastic reduction in population size reduces gene pool |
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Term
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Definition
| when a few individuals colonize an island or new habitat, smaller gene pool |
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Term
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Definition
| a population may gain or lose alleles when fertile individuals move in or out of a population or when gametes are transferred between populations |
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Term
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Definition
| the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to the contributions of other individuals |
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Term
| Describe: Stabilizing Selection |
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Definition
| favors intermediate phenotypes (maintains status quo) |
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Term
| Describe: Directional Selection |
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Definition
| shifts the overall makeup by acting against individuals at one end of the phenotypic extreme (common during environmental change, beetles) |
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Term
| Describe: Disruptive Selection |
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Definition
| environmental conditions vary in a way that favors individuals at both ends of a phenotypic range over individuals with intermediate phenotypes |
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Term
| What are the types of natural selection? |
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Definition
| Stabilizing, directional, disruptive |
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Term
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Definition
| the process by which one species splits into two or more species |
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Term
| Describe the Biological Species Concept |
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Definition
| defines species as a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce fertile off spring |
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Term
| Describe the Morpological Species Concept |
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Definition
| can be applied to asexual organisms and fossils and does not require information in inbreeding, but may rely on subjective criteria |
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Term
| Define the Ecological Species Concept |
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Definition
| identifies species in terms of ecological niches, focusing on unique adaptations to particular roles in a biological community |
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Term
| Define the Phylogenic Species Concept |
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Definition
| defines a species as the smallest group of individuals that share a common ancestor and thus form one branch on the tree of life |
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Term
| What are some prezygotic barriers to reproduction? |
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Definition
| Habitat isoluation, temporal isolation (mate at diff times of day), behavioral isolation, mechanical isolation, gametic isolation (gametes fail to unite) |
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Term
| What are some postzygotic barriers to reproduction? |
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Definition
| Reduced hybrid viability, reduced hybrid ffertility, hybrid breakdown |
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Term
| Define: Allopatric Seperation |
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Definition
| Initial block to gene flow may come from geographic barrier that isolates population |
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Term
| Why are isolated islands good examples of allopatric seperation? |
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Definition
| Islands that have diverse habitats and permit populations to evolve in isolation and allow occasional dispersions to occur are often the sites of multiple speciation events |
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Term
| Define: Adaptive Radiation |
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Definition
| Evolution of many diverse species from a common ancestor |
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Term
| How multiple colonizations and speciations on the galapagos islands have created darwins finches? |
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Definition
| Founder effect, followed by natural selection, followed by colonization and coexsistion with original ancestor species with reproductive barriers |
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Term
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Definition
| Regions in which members of differing species meet and mate, producing some hybrid offspring |
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Term
| How is a hybrid zone formed? |
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Definition
| Three populations connected (gene flow), barrier seperates one, population diverges from other two, gene flow reestablished in hubrid zone |
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Term
| Name/Describe the three states that can occur after a hybrid zone is established |
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Definition
| Reinforcement (hybrid less fit, reinforce reproductive barriers) Fusion (reproductive barriers thin, speciation reverses) Stability (species maintain integrity) |
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