-macro= change in patterns of species diversity and dramatic phenotypic evolution over large time scales

-micro=change in allele frequency over short time scales

=any genetic change in pop. over time

-mutation

-selection

-drift

-migration

-any heritable change to DNA

-variants get shuffled by meiotic recombination and dispersed

-can be good, bad, or neutral

-raw material for evolution

-itself is mechanism of evolution (very slow)

-per generation=1 in 250 million point mutation

-about 2.5 billion nucs in genome

-10 new mutations per human per generation

-ex. class of 200 ppl = 2000 novel mutations

-point

-insertion/deletion

-regulatory mutation

-change in chromosome number (aneuploidy/polyploidy)

-alter single nuc. base (substitution)

-not cause amino acid change= synonymous= no effect

-cause amino ac. change= nonsynonymous/replacement

-critical nuc replacement = harmful

-ex. sickle cell anemia, progeria, hemophelia

-not multiples of 3= frame-shift

-large deletions harmful

-frameshift harmful

-aneuploidy= having less than or more than normal number of diploid chromosomes

-polyploidy (plants)= multiplication of a diploid set of chromosomes (reproductive isolation mechanism that causes speciation)

-point, insertion/deletion that occur in regulatory region of gene=change expression level of gene

-not destroy allelic function

-gain novel function/expression pattern

-chance events change all. fre. ex. natural disasters

-combining gametes from one generation to make the next=subject to chance shifts in allele freq.

movement of individuals between differentiated populations

-

-under random mating

-predictable patterns of alleles being passed on between generations

-based on Mendelian genetics from parent to offspring

-given allele freq in pop.

-can predict genotype freq of next generation at HWE

-no selection,mutation,migration, drift (infinite pop.) & random mating & diploid sexually reproducing

-heritable phenotypic variation in population that affects fitness

-fitness= amount of genetic contribution to next generation, depend on phenotype determined by genotype & environment (absolute and relative)

-selection is measured among genotypes not alleles

-measures of fitness= survival, mating success, progeny

-(subtract) difference between relative fitness of a genotype and a reference

-measure of the strength of selection against a genotype

-ways selection act on phenotypes regardless of genetic basis

-purifying (stabilizing)

-directional (positive)

-stabilizing mode of selection

-selection act against deleterious alleles

-eliminate extreme phenotypes

-cause deviations from HWE

-not efficient at eliminating bad alleles=

1) bad alleles sheltered in heterozygotes

2) phenotypic variation has complex genetic basis

3)mutation introduce bad alleles continuously=> mut. selec. balance (equilibrium of introducing and removing bad alleles by each factor)

-for purely recessive mut. freq= (u/s)^(1/2)

-for lethal recess.mut (s=1)= (u)^(1/2)

-weak purifying selection leave DNA footprint

1)stronger selection for bad genes that code for amino acids

2)most polymorphisms in coding region is neutral (synonymous) b/c otherwise selected out

-selection push average phenotype of pop. in certain direction ex. small vs. large

-fixation of allele

-rate of fixation= in dominant, recessive, or co-dominant

-efficacy of selection for advantageous mutants depend on allelic dominance

-dominant= no fixation but initially proceed faster

-co-dominant= fixation but initially proceed slower b/c selective advantage of heterozygote is not as good as homozygote advantage

-relative to homozygotes

-can be caused by chromosomal inversion

-selection eventually fix one or the other allele with the selected allele completely lost

-genetic polymorphism lost 

-could have caused evolution from chimps to humans!