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| The principle classes of biomolecules |
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| proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids |
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| two or more amino acids joined together |
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| two or more proteins joined together |
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| two amino acids combine together by forming a peptide bond using amino group of one amino acid and carboxyl group of another amino acid |
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| Three amino acids combine together by forming two peptide bonds |
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| Any number of amino acids link together and form a polymer |
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| -NH2, a carboxyl group, COOH, and a R group all bonded |
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| covalent interactions between side chains |
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| if four different atoms or groups are attached to a carbon |
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Two mirror image forms of a chiral molecule
D- right handed
L- left handed |
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| naturally occurring amino acids |
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| naturally occurring carbohydrates |
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| sequence of amino acids connected by peptide bonds |
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| one acidic acid is replaced by a non polar amino acid in hemoglobin |
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| three dimensional shape that results in the folding of a protein chain |
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| a protein composed only by amino acids |
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a protein that incorporates one or more non amino acid units in its structure
-something else on it |
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| tough and insoluble protein in which the chain form long fibers or sheet |
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| Wool, hair, and finger nails |
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| bones, tendon, ligaments, skin, and intervertebral discs |
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water soluble proteins whose chains are folded into compact shape with hydrophilic groups on the outside
-Enzymes, hemoglobin |
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| changing the shape of a protein |
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simple sugars containing 3-7 carbon atoms
-chiral |
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| complex carbohydrates are longs strings of monosaccharides |
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| indicating its a carbohydrate |
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| glucose and fructose and galactose |
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is the most widely occurring of all monosaccharides
-source of energy
-starch or amylose and glycogen |
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| need to be converted to glucose before the body can use them, used in lower calorie sweeteners |
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| the replacement of a hydroxyl group on a carbohydrate results in an amino sugar |
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| two glucoses are joined by a alpha bond. made from plants starches (amylose) which are polymers of glucose |
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| milk sugar is made of galactose and glucose |
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| table sugar or sugar cane made from fructose and glucose |
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| inborn error of metabolism |
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short chain of monosaccharides and covalently bonded to many proteins and lipids when in their final functional form
-glycoprotein and glycolipids |
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| abundant on the surfaces of cells "velcro" |
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Gives: O, A, B, AB
Receives: O |
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| Type O gives and receives from: |
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Gives: A, AB
Receives: A, O |
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| Type A gives and receives from: |
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Gives: B, AB
Receives: B, O |
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| Type B gives and receives from: |
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Gives: AB
Receives: A, B, AB, O |
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| Type AB gives and receives from: |
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| cellulose, starch or amylose, and glycogen |
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how plants store glucose
-1000 of glucose monomers
-soluble in water |
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plant structure
-hydrophobic
-fibrous chains (celery-cant digest) |
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how mammals store glucose
-1 million glucose monomers per molecule
-store in liver |
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| naturally occurring molecules from plants or animals that are insoluble in water |
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long chain (~20) carboxylic acids
-always cis |
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are composed of 3 fatty acids attached to glycerol. Major source of biochemical energy.
-long term storage of energy |
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| glycerol plus 2 fatty acids and a charged phosphate groups. Abundant in cell membranes. |
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| glycerol plus 2 fatty acids and a polar carbohydrate groups. Found in the cell membranes with carbohydrates facing out. |
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| 4 ring structure and can be made into hormones or biles salts and as cholesterol contribute to the structure of cell membranes |
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| carboxylic acids that are a special type of cellular chemical messengers including prostaglandins |
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| combining carboxylic acid and an alcohol |
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| mixture of triglycerides that is liquid because it contains unsaturated fatty acids |
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| A mixture of triglycerides that is solid because it contains high proportions of saturated fatty acids |
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| The carbon carbon double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids can be reduced by reacting with hydrogen to produce saturated fatty acids |
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When unsaturated FAs are heated to high temperatures, some of the cis bonds change to trans
-cannot break down |
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1. Plant oils
2. Butter
3. Soft Margarine
4. Hard Margarine |
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| Healthiest to least healthy |
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made in the pancreas
-hydrolysis is catalyzed by hydrolase class enzymes |
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| the michelle arrangement allows oily dirts to be surrounded by a hydrophobic environment, yet float away in water |
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| phospholipids, glycolipids, and cholesterol |
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| used in cell membranes, steroid hormones, and bile salts |
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basic structural unit of cell membrane
-composed of two parallel sheets of membrane lipid molecules arranged tail to tail |
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substances moves across the cell membrane freely by diffusion from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration
-O2, CO2, H2O, steroid hormones |
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| Channel mediated facilitated diffusion |
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Definition
ions
-channels open their gates and allow the ions through only at specific times measured in milliseconds, and the entire source of energy to push the ions across the diffusion |
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| Carrier mediated facilitated diffusion |
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Definition
| glucose and amino acids both in the intestines during absorption and all other cells needed (concentration gradient) |
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| against the concentration gradient and ATP is used "sodium potassium ion pumps" |
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-encourage platelet aggregation during blood clotting
-stimulate uterine contraction
-lower amount of gastric secretion
-increase amount of pain and swelling |
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anti-prostaglandins
-relieve pain
-reduce inflammation
-reduce fever |
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| NSAIDS are also called... |
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| a protein that acts as a catalyst for a biochemical reaction |
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| A pocket in an enzyme with specific shape and chemical makeup necessary to bind a substrate and where the reaction takes place |
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| A reactant in an enzyme catalyzed reaction |
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| enzyme activity is limited to a certain substrate and a certain type of reaction |
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| Many enzymes are conjugated proteins that require nonproteins portions |
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| organic molecules and vitamins |
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catalyze oxidation reduction reactions. Addition or removal of oxygen or hydrogen
A --> B |
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catalyze transfer of a group from one molecule to another
A+B --> C+D |
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catalyze the hydrolysis of substrate-the breaking of bond with addition of water
A --> B+C |
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catalyze the bonding of two substrate molecules. (Dehydration synthesis)
A+B --> C |
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Removes a carboxyl group from a carboxylic acid producing a CO2
A --> B+CO2 |
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| the reaction rate varies directly with the enzyme concentration as long as the substrate concentration does not become a limitation |
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| any process that starts or increases the activity of an enzyme (increase, on) |
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any process that stops or slows the activity of an enzyme
(decrease, off) |
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| regulation of an enzyme's activity by the product of a reaction in a pathway, and allosteric control |
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-does not have to involve the direct product of the series of reactions
-can be inhibition or activation
-D tells A to either go slow or fast |
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| Allosteric control (non competitive) |
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Definition
| Activity of an enzyme is controlled by the binding of an activator or inhibitor at a location other than the active site |
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| Positive allosteric regulator |
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| changes the activity site so that the enzyme becomes a better catalyst and the rate accelerates (ADP) |
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| Negative allosteric regulator |
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| changes the activity site so that the enzyme becomes less effective catalyst and the rate slows down (ATP) |
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| the inhibitor remains permanently bound to the enzyme and the enzyme is permanently inhibited (poisons and heavy metals) |
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| is the neurotransmitter between motor neurons and muscle thus sending the contract message to the receptor on the muscle |
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| ________ which is a hydrolase |
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| occurs when the inhibitor binds to the active site |
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| noncompetitive inhibition (allosteric) |
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| if the inhibitor binds somewhere other than the active site. Amount of substrate has no effect on whether or not the inhibitor works |
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| low BP, inactive, decapeptide |
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| angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) |
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| enzyme that converts Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II |
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| drug that fits into the active site of ACE |
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| prevent replication of HIV |
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| 2nd to last change of blood clotting |
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thrombin catalyzes change to ______.
-soluble |
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becomes the fish net the forms the clot
-insoluble |
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| made in an inactive form and become active instantly when a chemical reaction splits off part of the molecule |
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enzymes regulated by other enzymes
-adds or removes an enzyme providing an on/off switch or faster/slower switch |
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| the synthesis of enzymes can be regulated at the level of the DNA. (Ex: Puberty) |
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| Water soluble vitamins- excess lost in urine daily |
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| Fat soluble-excess stored in fat and liver |
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| Cofactors in multiple reactions including citric acid cycle and production of ATP |
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coenzyme used when making collagen
-essential for connective tissue
-scurvy
-citrus fruits |
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coenzymes in the synthesis of amino acids and nucleic acids
-Pregnancy
-Neural tube defect |
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For vision and the immune system
-night blindness |
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absorb calcium
-sunlight
-rickets
-milk |
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antioxidant not a coenzyme
-free radicals |
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