Term
| What defines a glycosidic linkage? |
|
Definition
1-4 bond
C1 Glucose - O - C4 of Glucose |
|
|
Term
| Which types of bonds/linkages are hydrolyzable? (4) |
|
Definition
| ester, amide, anhydride, and glycosidic linkages |
|
|
Term
| What are the 6 hydrogen type molecules to distinguish? |
|
Definition
| Diatomic Hydrogen, Hydride Ion, Hydronium Ion, Hydroxide Ion, Hydrogen Ion (proton), Hydrogen atom |
|
|
Term
| Practice drawing a general schematic for a nucleotide, and practice drawing an ATP schematic, and if possible ATP |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Gene Expression Parts and definitions |
|
Definition
Instruction built into DNA structure ---Transcription in cell's nucleus---> Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is made (nucleotides are linked in a sequence specified by the DNA's structure)
Instructions built into mRNA structure---Translation @ a ribosome---> a protein is made (amino acids are linked in a sequence specified by the mRNA's structure) |
|
|
Term
| Practice drawing both forms of glucose (circle and string) and a glycosidic linkage |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Practice Drawing use of muscle protein during fasting |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Enzyme Activation Rule of Thumb (2) |
|
Definition
If an enzyme is phosphorylation activated or deactivated odds are:
In the fed state phosphorylation makes the enzyme less active
In the fasting state phosphorylation makes the enzyme more active. |
|
|
Term
| In metabolism, is oxygen reduced or oxidized? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why do we need to consume energy? (5) |
|
Definition
| Dietary fuels are needed for biosynthesis (repair), detoxification, muscle contraction, thermogenesis, active ion transport |
|
|
Term
| Draw the ATP cycle (p.4 fig 1.2) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Practice drawing figure 1.3 on page 4 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What type of bond is a peptide bond? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Briefly define the TCA cycle |
|
Definition
| A series of reactions that completes teh oxidation of fuels to CO2. |
|
|
Term
| How is atp generated from fuel molecules? |
|
Definition
| Electrons lost from the fuels during oxidative reactions are transferred to O2 by a series of proteins in the ETC. The energy of e- transfer is used to convert ADP & Pi to ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. |
|
|
Term
| Electron Transport Chain (ETC) |
|
Definition
| A series of proteins that pulls high energy e-'s from oxidized molecular fuel and attaches them to O2 making ATP in the process. |
|
|
Term
| List the major polysaccharides, disaccharides & their constituents, and monosaccharides (8) |
|
Definition
Glycogen, Starch
Sucrose (glucose, fructose), Maltose (glucose x2), Lactose (glucose, galactose)
Fructose, Glucose, Galactose |
|
|
Term
Translate all of the following terms:
Table Sugar, Cane Sugar, Milk sugar, fruit sugar, blood sugar, dextrose |
|
Definition
Table Sugar = Sucrose
Cane Sugar = Sucrose
Milk Sugar = Lactose
Fruit Sugar = Glucose
Blood Sugar = Glucose Concentration in the blood
Dextrose = D-Glucose |
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|
Term
| Why is fat more energy dense than protein and carbs? |
|
Definition
| It contains less oxygen and is therefore less oxidized/can be more oxidized. |
|
|
Term
| Draw a triglyceride general structure |
|
Definition
H2-C-O-CO-R1
H-C-O-CO-R2
H2-C-O-CO-R3 |
|
|
Term
| How are fats and veg oils similar/different? |
|
Definition
| Veg oils are unsaturated and have double bond kinks |
|
|
Term
| 3 ways the body stores fuel & the cells that contain them |
|
Definition
Liver Cells- Glycogen
Adipocytes- Fat
Skeletal Muscle Cells- Protein |
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|
Term
| What is the name of the enzyme that converts glucose 6-phosphate to glucose? |
|
Definition
| Glucose 6-phosphotase as would be expected |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates |
|
|
Term
| What are the three major fates of each of the 3 fuels? |
|
Definition
Carb-Oxidation/Energy, Storage Glycogen or TAG, Synthesis of many compounds
Protein- Protein synthesis, Oxidation/Energy, synthesis of nitrogen-containing compounds
Fat- Oxidation/Energy, Storage (TAG), Synthesis (membrane lipids) |
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|
Term
| Describe the absorption of monosaccharides from a carbohydrate meal |
|
Definition
| In secondary active transport of glucose by the Na+-glucose transporter on Na binds to the carrier protein in the luminal membrane, stimulating the binding of glucose. The protein changes conformation and releases Na+ and glucose into the cell which both then go into the extracellular fluid. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Shortened polysaccharides formed after a-amylase breaks starch up |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1-6 linkage of two glucose molecules (where the CH2OH is the H is cutoff and attached to the 1C) |
|
|
Term
| What kind of cells secrete stomach acid? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How long can an oligosaccharide be? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Locations and Functions of GLUT 1-5 |
|
Definition
GLUT1 Locations: Liver, RBC's, Blood brain barrier, blood retinal barrier, blood placental barrier, blood testis barrier
Function: Expressed in cell types with barrier functions; a high-affinity glucose transport system
GLUT2 Locations: Kidney, Pancreatic B-cell, serosal surface of intestinal mucosa cells
Function: A high-capicity, low-affinity transporter. May be used as the glucose sensor in the pancreas
GLUT3 Locations: Brain (neurons)
Functions: Major transporter in the CNS. A high-affinity system.
GLUT4: Locations: Adipose Tissue, Skeletal Muscle, Heart Muscle
Functions: Insulin-sensitive transporter. In the presence of insulin, the number of GLUT4 transporters increases on teh cell surface. a high-affinity system.
GLUT5 Locations: Intestinal epithelium, spermatozoa
Functions: Can transport glucose but primarily a fructose transporter. |
|
|
Term
| What is the term for both water and fat soluble? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What hydrolyzes both sucrose and a-1-6 bonds? |
|
Definition
| The sucrase-isomaltase complex |
|
|
Term
| What is the other name for the C1 carbon in glucose? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What two types of glucose transport mechanisms are there? |
|
Definition
| Secondary active transport with Na+-glucose carrier proteins, and facilitative glucose transporters (GLUT transporters) |
|
|
Term
What cells specifically release insulin?
What cells specifically release glucagon? |
|
Definition
B-cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas
a-cells of the pancreas |
|
|
Term
| Describe the chemical structure of insulin |
|
Definition
Two polypeptide chains named a and b chains attached by two disulfide bonds
the a chain has an additional intrachain disulfide bond |
|
|
Term
| What messages does insulin send out? (3) |
|
Definition
Stimulates glucose storage as glycogen (muscle and liver) and tells the liver to use glucose as fuel
Stimulates fatty acid synthesis and storage after a high-carbohydrate meal
stimulates amino acid uptake and protein synthesis |
|
|
Term
| Messages delivered by glucagon (2) |
|
Definition
Activates gluconeogensis and glycogenolysis (liver) during fasting
activates fatty acid release from adipose tissue |
|
|
Term
| What are the major and minor regulators of insulin release (5) |
|
Definition
Major: Glucose
Minor: AAs, Neural Input, Gut hormones
Minorly deactivates release: epinephrine |
|
|
Term
| What are the regulators of glucagon release? (6) |
|
Definition
Major:
Glucose -
Insulin -
Amino Acids +
Minor:
Cortisol +
Neural (stress) +
Epinephrine + |
|
|
Term
| How is insulin released? (5) |
|
Definition
Glucose enters B-cell through GLUT2 which causes glycolysis and an increase in ATP
The increase in ATP leads to a closing in ATP-dependent K+ channel
This leads to membrane depolarization, which opens voltage gated Ca2+ channels
Increase in Ca2+ leads to fusion of insulin containing exocytotic vesicles with the plasma membrane
Insulin is secreted |
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 main places glucose goes to in the fed state after a high carb meal? |
|
Definition
Used in the liver to make TAG, take care of temporary energy needs, and make glycogen
stored in muscle
stored in adipose
RBC use
brain/neuronal tissues use |
|
|
Term
| Glucose aerobic conversion to ATP |
|
Definition
| Glucose - pyruvate - acetyl coA - Co2 & ATP |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
VLDLs are made in the liver where they then go into the blood
Chylomicrons are made in enterocytes where they then go into lacteals and then into the blood |
|
|
Term
| What constitutes chylomicrons? |
|
Definition
| proteins, phospholipids, cholesterol, mainly TAGs, Cholesterol ester |
|
|
Term
| what two fat enzymes does the pancreas secrete? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the short chain fatty acid length range? |
|
Definition
C4-C12
C2-C4 according to p. 507 (colonic bacteria feed on these) |
|
|
Term
| Nascent vs Mature Chylomicrons |
|
Definition
| Mature have received apoproteins CII and E from HDL |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| activated by apoCII digests TAGs of chylomicrons to FA and glycerol. The FAs go to muscle or adipocytes. |
|
|
Term
| what is the role of bile? |
|
Definition
| To break up fat into micelles |
|
|
Term
| Where is TAG remade in the body? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pre-enzyme aka proenzyme or inactive form of an enzyme |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Chylomicrons transport exogenous (dietary) products, TAGs are made in intestinal epithelial cells
VLDL transports endogenous products and have a much lower concentration of Triglycerides, TAGs made in liver cells
both can be cleared by liver, but VLDL can be made into LDL which is cleared by liver or by peripheral cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The activation of an enzyme by peptide cleavage |
|
|
Term
Proteolytic Enzymes (5)
their precursors
and activators |
|
Definition
Pepsin, Trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, and carboxypeptidases
Pepsinogen, Trypsinogen, Chymotripinogen, Proelastase, Procarboxypeptidases
Pepsin activated by H+
trypsin - enteropeptidase
chymotripsin - trypsin
elastase - trypsin
procarboxy - trypsin |
|
|
Term
Pepsinogen is secreted by...
and activated by... |
|
Definition
Chief Cells of the stomach
Self activated/cleaved by HCl
making it autocatalytic |
|
|
Term
| How are AAs transported into the Hepatic Portal Vein? |
|
Definition
Via Na+-dependent carriers into the cell
Then the AA is goes into the vein via a Facilitated Transporter |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Any of a group of enzymes, such as trypsin, chymotrypsin, pepsin, and elastase, which catalyze the splitting of polypeptide chains at nonterminal locations |
|
|
Term
| Exopeptidases are produced by... |
|
Definition
| intestinal epithelial cells |
|
|
Term
| What happens to blood levels of insulin, glucagon, nitrogen, and glucose after a high protein meal? |
|
Definition
Nitrogen goes up for four hours
glucose stays steady
insulin rises and falls after an hour
glucagon rises and falls after two hours |
|
|
Term
| What are the 6 things AA's can be used for? |
|
Definition
The TCA cycle
Proteins for the liver and other tissues
Made into TAG's which are put into VLDL
Made into glucose to go to the blood
Made into glucose to become glycogen
made into essential nitrogen containing compounds |
|
|
Term
| What are the three main sources of carbon for gluconeogenesis? |
|
Definition
| Amino acids (particularly alanine), Lactate, Glycerol |
|
|
Term
| How long before a person is considered "starving"? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What roles does the liver have during fasting? |
|
Definition
| Glycogenolysis, maintaining blood sugar, gluconeogenesis, ketogenesis, B-oxidation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The process by which fatty acids, in the form of Acyl-CoA molecules, are broken down in mitochondria and/or in peroxisomes to generate Acetyl-CoA |
|
|
Term
| What are the two Ketone Bodies? (practice drawing and naming) |
|
Definition
B-hydroxybutyrate
m-CHOH-CH2-COO-
Acetoacetate
O
m-C-CH2-COO- |
|
|
Term
Glucose mg/dL
Normally
12h
3d
5-6 wk |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glycogenolysis vs Gluconeogensis fasting timeline |
|
Definition
Glycogenolysis for first 12 hours
after 16 they equal out
after 30 hours glycogen stores are empty and gluconeogensis takes over |
|
|
Term
| Practice drawing Glucose 6-phosphate to ATP (drawing in notebook) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Put's H2O in and takes an Pi out |
|
|
Term
| How many different kind of AA's can be made? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the other two names for enterocytes? |
|
Definition
gut mucosal cells
and
intestinal epithelial cells |
|
|
Term
| In what order are AA's listed? |
|
Definition
| From N terminus to C terminus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Lymphatic vessel in gut wall |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Kinase - catalyzes transfer of a phosphate from a high energy phosphate door to an acceptor
Protein Kinase
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of a proenzyme to an active enzyme
Protein Kinase catalyzes phosphorylation of proteins |
|
|
Term
| Acinar Cells of Pancreas (2 other names 4 enzymes it secretes) |
|
Definition
aka pancreatic acinar cells, or exocrine cells of pancreas
secrete a wide range of enzymes including Chymotrypsinogens, Trypsinogens, and Procarboxypeptidases, and a-amylase |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure of glucagon? |
|
Definition
| 29 AA long polypeptide chain |
|
|
Term
| List of brush boarder enzymes (4) |
|
Definition
Maltase)
Sucrase-Isomaltase
Lactase
Peptidases |
|
|
Term
| How many peptide bonds does a dipeptide have? Tripeptide? |
|
Definition
Dipeptide has one peptide bond
Tripeptide has two peptide bonds |
|
|
Term
| What defines prolonged fasting? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
glucoagon hits receptor on outside of cell
G Protein binds Pi to GDP to make GTP
GTP in G protein activates Adenylate cyclase
cAMP
cAMP activates PKA
PKA activates enzymes, and CREB to CREB-Pi |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the three other names for a serpentine receptor? |
|
Definition
| 7TM, Seven Transmembrane, heptahelical |
|
|
Term
| What is meant by heterotrimeric? |
|
Definition
| Protein consists of 3 different subunit polypeptide chains, a, B, y subunits (alpha, beta, gamma) |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of cAMP phosphodiesterase? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| protein that can bind to DNA and speed up transcription |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
cAMP response element binding protein
is a transcription factor and is activated by PKA which phosphorylates CREB |
|
|
Term
| What is the name for the response from a plasma membrane receptor? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Activated by phopshorylated G protein subunit alpha
releases cAMP proportionately to how much glucagon is present |
|
|
Term
| What is the name of the protein activated by phopshorylated G protein subunit alpha? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How does insulin affect cAMP and reverse glucagon's effects? |
|
Definition
| It lowers cAMP by phosphodiesterase activation, which deactivates PKA which |
|
|
Term
How does glucagon activate hormone sensitive lipase (HSL)?
Also what is the other name for HSL? |
|
Definition
It causes intracellular cAMP to increase which activates PKA which phosphorylates HSL, which then initiates the breakdown of TAGs
HSL aka TAG Lipase |
|
|
Term
| How does glucagon produce more of an inducible enzyme for gluconeogensis |
|
Definition
| In the liver cAMP activates PKA which activates/phosphorylates more CREB to CREB-Pi, which then activates speeds up transcription, which speeds up translation to make new enzymes used for gluconeogenesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Inhibitory G-protein Complex- inhibits adenylyl cyclase
Stimulative G-protein Complex |
|
|
Term
| What is the result of GTPase internal clock activity of heterotrimeric G-protein? |
|
Definition
| the a-subunit of a heterotrimeric G protein reassociates with the B and y subunits, which deactivates adenylyl cyclase which ends cAMP production |
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