Term
| What is Bergmann's Rule and what does it predict? |
|
Definition
the principle that an animal's size is heat-related; smaller bodies are adapted to hot environments and larger bodies are adapted to cold environments
Prediction: Populations in colder climates should have absolutely wider and shorter stature than populations in warmer climates |
|
|
Term
| What is Allen's Rule and what does it predict? |
|
Definition
the principle that an animal's limb lengths are heat-related; limbs are longer in hot environments and shorter in cold environments
Prediction: populations in colder climates should have absolutely shorter extremities than populations in warmer climates |
|
|
Term
| What are some physical adaptations to environment evident in the fossil record and in current populations? |
|
Definition
| Neanderthals: shorter limbs, heavier build, narrow nasal aperture to decrease evaporative heat loss, and a bulbus nose that warms the air before entering the lungs |
|
|
Term
| What is a secular trend? Give an example. |
|
Definition
-trends over time in growth and maturation.
-a phenotypic change due to multiple factors. such a trend can be positive (increased height) or negative (decreased height)
-examples: decreased age at menarche |
|
|
Term
| What is a clinal trend? Give an example. |
|
Definition
-a gradual change in some phenotypic characteristic from one populations to the next
-example: skin color varying with latitude |
|
|
Term
| Short term and long term adaptations to altitude |
|
Definition
short-term:
-increased cardiac output (increased blood pressure and increased pulse)
-increased respiration
long-term:
-increased production of RBC's
-increased hemoglobin content
-increased lung capacity
-increased capillaries
-decreased plasma volume
-enlarged heart |
|
|
Term
| Long-term adaptations to UV Rays |
|
Definition
| -skin color varies with latitude to protect against UV radiation and facilitate Vitamin D synthesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -changes that increase function of an individual, but cannot be transmitted to offspring |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -increases in function that are the result of genetic change of the population |
|
|
Term
| What is the problem with the air pressure at high altitudes? |
|
Definition
-the percent oxygen is the same as at sea level (21%)
-but the atmosphere is less dense (aka atmospheric pressure is lower) and there is not enough air pressur to force oxygen across lung membrane |
|
|
Term
| What is hypoxia? What causes it? |
|
Definition
-known as altitude sickness
-caused by oxygen deprivation |
|
|
Term
| What are the symptoms of hypoxia? At what level (m) might these symptoms begin? |
|
Definition
1. fatigue
2. loss of appetite
3. impaired vision and thought
-begins at 1500 m |
|
|
Term
| What are the effects of hypoxia on growth? |
|
Definition
-intra-uterine grwoth restriction
-delayed development of motor skills
-delayed sexual maturation |
|
|
Term
| What are some cultural adaptations to altitude? |
|
Definition
-group sleeping
-use of coca leaves (chew and tea) in South America : a stimulant that increases exercise capacity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -easily discernable difference between people in skin color |
|
|
Term
| What is the bodys largest organ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The skin has two layers. What are they and what do they do? |
|
Definition
1. epidermis: the thin, protective laer
2. dermis: connective tissue that is made up of collagenous inner fibers |
|
|
Term
| What causes variation seen in skin color? |
|
Definition
| -different amount of melanin |
|
|
Term
| What is clinal variation? |
|
Definition
-distribution of frequencies of traits that show a systematic gradation over space
-the opposite though of typology (classifying into groups; ignoring variability) |
|
|
Term
| Why does skin color vary with latitude? |
|
Definition
-Protection against UV radiation
-Facilitate Vitamin D synthesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bowed long bones because growth plates do not mineralize |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| cultural adaptations to UV rays? |
|
Definition
-clothing
-vitamin-D enriched foods
-sunscreen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-a group of people distinguished by certain similar (and genetically transmitted) physical characteristics
-geographically delimited population |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -a group with common culture, nationality, and geographic origin; have common values, traditions, behavior, and language |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the 'science' of improving human populations by selective breeding |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-race used as a strategy to divide, rank, and control people
-provided justification for conquering slavery, and exploitation |
|
|
Term
| Problems with the term 'eugenics' |
|
Definition
| -assumed that there were innate behavioral differences (with genetic bases) in mental ability, among races, and social classes (biodeterminism) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-not the inner quality of a person, but rather a population of people
-difficult to define groups
-humans are not geographically confined
-more variation within groups that between them |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -regionally defined collections of individuals forming reproductive units |
|
|
Term
| What are classical markers? |
|
Definition
-those genes whose inheritance can be consistently documented and mapped
-those that produce phenotypically-observable traits |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-SNPs and microsatellites
-finer resoluation of DNA variation allows for geographic mapping of distributions |
|
|
Term
| What kinds of things do studies of classical and DNA markers tell us? |
|
Definition
| -can ascertain one's likely continental ancestry |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-a discrete genetic trait that exists in a population in at least two forms
-when viewing enough polymorphisms, it is possible to ascertain one's likely continental ancestry |
|
|
Term
| 4 types of proteins that help determine attributes of blood |
|
Definition
-proteins on the surface of RBCs
-proteins inside the RBC
-proteins on the WBC
-proteins in the blood serum |
|
|
Term
| Main blood group systems in humans and primates |
|
Definition
-humans: ABO
-chimpanzees: A O
-gorillas : B O |
|
|
Term
| How do the three alleles combine to form the observed phenotypes? (think about co-dominance, etc.) |
|
Definition
| -A and B are codominant to each other, and both are dominant to O |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -substances, such as bacteria, foreign blood cells, and enzymes, that stimulate the immune system's antibody production |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -molecules that form as part of the primary immune response to the presence of foreign substances; attach to foreign antigens |
|
|
Term
| What sugar do each off the three alleles add to the surface molecule on the RBC? |
|
Definition
-A = N-acetylgalactosamine
-B = Galactose
-O = adds no final sugar |
|
|
Term
| Tyle A blood has what antigens and antibodies? |
|
Definition
| -Antigen A, Anti-B antibodies |
|
|
Term
| Type B blood has what antigens and antibodies? |
|
Definition
| -Antigen B, Anti-A antibodies |
|
|
Term
| Type AB blood has what antigens and antibodies? |
|
Definition
| -Antigens A and B, no antibodies |
|
|
Term
| Type O blood has what antigens and antibodies? |
|
Definition
| -no antigens, Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies |
|
|
Term
| Reasons for clinal distribution of ABO blood groups |
|
Definition
-genetic drift (founder's effect and bottleneck)
-gene flow (migration)
-natural selection |
|
|
Term
| Why would some people be more susceptble to infectious diseases? |
|
Definition
| -a pathogen may possess molecules that mimic those found on RBC's, so it more easily gains entry to our cells and our immune system is less likely to recognize it as a danger |
|
|
Term
| natural resistance alleles: |
|
Definition
CCR5-delta32
confers some resistance against smallpox and the plague and complete resistance against HIV-I
Duffy null in Africa: those that have resistant alleles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| blood type AB (because no antibodies) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| blood type O because no antigens |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a red protein responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between lactase and lactose? |
|
Definition
-lactase = enzyme
-lactose = sugar
lactase is the enzyme that breaks down the sugar lactose |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| helps recyle hemoglobin from old / damaged RBCs by preventing its excretion by the kidneys |
|
|
Term
| What is alcohol dehydrogenase? |
|
Definition
an enzyme that breaks down alcohols
low levels of alcohol dehydrogenase makes a person drunk easily |
|
|
Term
| What is lactase deficiency? |
|
Definition
| -lactase producing gene becomes inactivated in adulthood because many have a mutation that allows for continued production into adulthood --> lactase persistence is actually dominant |
|
|
Term
| What is sickle-cell disorder? |
|
Definition
| a genetic blood disease in which the RBCs become deformed and sickle shaped, decreasing their ability to carry oxygen to tissues |
|
|
Term
| How and why does culture affect these genotypic variations? |
|
Definition
-Human culture mediates the effects / distributions of many of these mutations
1. Infectious disease exposure (population density, sanitation, subsistence, contact with neighbords, medicine, etc.)
2. Diet / Subsistence (general health, exposure to disease, caloric needs, population density supported, etc.)
3. Migration patterns (trade, conquest, marriage) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -intelligence is not innate |
|
|
Term
| What did the Bell curve argue? |
|
Definition
| -contends that intelligence can accurately be measured via IQ tests; argued that IQ is inborn and unchangeable |
|
|
Term
| What are the arguments against the bell curve? |
|
Definition
-authors were biased
-there were numerous statistical irregularities
-IQ tests measure performance (not innate ability)
-you can train yourself to do better
-scores have changed over time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -the idea that there is a biological basis for behavior |
|
|
Term
| Why is thinking about most behaviors as purely biological problematic? |
|
Definition
| -it is inappropriate to think about most behavior as being "determined" by biological factors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -overt behavior with the intention of inflicting damage or other unpleasantness upon another individual |
|
|
Term
| What is agnostic aggression? |
|
Definition
| -a social interaction or encounter which involves aggression whether physical or not (includes both the aggressive and submissive actions involving a conflict of interest) |
|
|
Term
| What is dominance aggression? |
|
Definition
| -apparent intent to achieve or maintain high status over a conspecific, often in the presence of overt physical aggression |
|
|
Term
| What are the three primary physiological mediators of aggression? |
|
Definition
1. serotonin
2. monamine oxidase A (MAOA)
3. testosterone |
|
|
Term
| What is serotonin? What are low serotonin levels associated with? |
|
Definition
-a neutrotransmitter important for the inhibition of impulses and regulation of emotions
-low serotonin associated with: violent suicide, alcoholism, pyromania, hyperirrability, impulsivity |
|
|
Term
| What is Monamine oxidase A (MAOA)? What are low MAOA levels associated with? |
|
Definition
-enzyme important for breaking down neutrotransmitters
-low MAOA levels associated with: impulsiveness and quarrelsomeness |
|
|
Term
| What is testosterone? What is high testosterone associated with? |
|
Definition
| -high testosterone associated with impulsiveness and quarrelsomeness, more purposeful, dominant, confident, and focused |
|
|
Term
| How does environment and social context affect testosterone levels? |
|
Definition
| -testosterone levels change according to the outcome of competition (rises in winners, declines in losers; however, you don't see change if it doesn't require skill or preparation to win (lottery) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"not same-size gametes"
-male gametes = small
-female gametes = large
-leads to differences in reproductive strategies |
|
|
Term
| What are three benefits of sexual reproduction? |
|
Definition
1. Brings together good gene combinations
2. Breaks apart bad gene combinations
3. Provides an advantage against pathogens |
|
|
Term
| What are three costs of sexual reproduction? |
|
Definition
1. 'Recombination Load' = the break up of favorable gene combinations
2. Pointless overproduction in males
3. Finding a mate (may be tricky, may have to advertise and compete, may require investment before and after mating) |
|
|
Term
| What is sexual selection? |
|
Definition
| a process which acts on traits that affect differential reproduction among individuals of the same sex and species |
|
|
Term
| What are the main sex differences between mammalian females and males? |
|
Definition
-Mammalian females (internal gestation and lactation) are required by their biology to invest more into reproduction.
-Mammalian males are not required by their biology to invest heavily in reproduction (low paternal certainty, higher reproductive variance than females) |
|
|
Term
| What is Bateman's Principle? |
|
Definition
-where one sex invests more than the other, members of the latter will compete among themselves to mate with members of the former
-female reproduction is limited by resources
-male reproduction is limited by access to females
-this usually means promiscuous, competitive males that should be ready to always mate |
|
|
Term
| What are females looking for in long-term? |
|
Definition
-prefer older and more reliable mates
-prefer long-term mates over short-term mates |
|
|
Term
| What are females looking for in the short-term? |
|
Definition
-immediate extraction of resources
-increased protection
-good genes |
|
|
Term
| What are males looking for in the short-term? |
|
Definition
-leads to more babies
-less discriminating in age than in long-term |
|
|
Term
| What are males looking for in the long-term? |
|
Definition
-identify reproductively valuable women
-paternal certainty
-prefer younger mates |
|
|
Term
| Psychology of mate choice. What do men and women prefer? |
|
Definition
-Both men and women prefer mutual attraction, honesty, and a sense of humor
-Women prefer ambition and resource potential
-Men prefer good looks and fidelity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- need to evaluate physical signs
- male choice of females: signs of fertility (breast size, waist-to-hip ratios, estrogenized features) |
|
|
Term
| What is the hormonla theory of facial attractiveness? |
|
Definition
| -perceived beauty depends on an interaction between displayed hormone markers and the hormonal state of the viewer |
|
|
Term
| How does mate choice vary over time? |
|
Definition
-women report greater attraction to extra pair mates during ovulation
-men exhibit more sexual jealousy during their partner's ovulation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| multiple sexual partners simultaneously |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -one male with multiple females |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one female with multiple males |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which mating pattern do humans usually subscribe to? |
|
Definition
| most marriages are monogamous, but less than 20% of all human societies are strictly monogamous |
|
|
Term
| What is Darwinian medicine? |
|
Definition
| the application of modern evolutionary theory to understanding health and disease |
|
|
Term
| How does Darwinian medicine differ from normal medical practice? |
|
Definition
| Physicians look at disease as the things that are present, as opposed to how they got there, why they are there, and how they will evolve in the future. |
|
|
Term
| Why do we care about past dietary practices? |
|
Definition
| -we study the diet of primates / hominins to understand and improve modern trends in human disease and diet-related health |
|
|
Term
| What do we known about diet and evolution in primates? |
|
Definition
| -dietary plasticity (frugivores, folivores, omnivores--a wide range of subsistence strategies based upon natural resources of the environment) |
|
|
Term
| What do we known about diet and evolution in hominins? |
|
Definition
-complex tool manufacture and use
-dietary pressure as evolutionary mechanism
-increased complexity of food procurement systems leading to more complex social groups and natural selection for better providers |
|
|
Term
| What do we known about diet and evolution in AMHS? |
|
Definition
-tool use + increased cognition
-domestication of plants and animals
-agriculture |
|
|
Term
| How might modern diets affect risk for modern disease? |
|
Definition
| The changes in diet through time have been linked to higher mortality and incidence of diet related conditions (obsesity, diabetes, high cholesterol, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, and cancer) |
|
|
Term
| What cultural changes have led to large shifts in diet? |
|
Definition
| agriculture and domestication |
|
|
Term
| What is the "Mediterranean" diet? |
|
Definition
-focuses on agriculture subsistence
-bread, cheese, oils, sugars, red meat
-acid producing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-the ancestral human diet
-implies a hunter-gatherer subsistence model
-refers to subsistence prior to domestication of plants and animals
-fresh meat and fish, nuts, berries, wild vegetables and fruits
-base-producing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the ability to secrete immunologically active and nutritious milk from ventral epidermal glands |
|
|
Term
| Why did lactation evolve into what it is today in primates? |
|
Definition
| -initially may have evolved as an adaptation to transfer immune factors to offspring; later to make efficient use of maternal body fat and other stored nutrients in feeding offspring and spacing birth |
|
|
Term
| What are the benefits of breastfeeding for infants? |
|
Definition
1. breast milk contains proper nutrients to support early growth and development
2. breast milk contains antibodies that protect the infant from common illnesses
3. long term benefit: improved sensory and cognitive development
4. long term benefit: reduced risk of developing high cholesterol, type-2 diabetes, and overweight/obesity later in life |
|
|
Term
| What are the benefits of breastfeeding for mothers? |
|
Definition
1. prolonged period of lactational amenorrhea which increases birth spacing
2. helps women return to their pre-pregnancy weight faster, and lowers rates of obesity
3. may reduce the risk of ovarian and breast cancer
4. may be protective against the development of type-2 diabetes |
|
|
Term
| Costs of breastfeeding to mother |
|
Definition
1. time and energy cost
2. future reproduction |
|
|
Term
| WHO recommendations on breastfeeding |
|
Definition
-initiate breastfeeding within one hour after birth
-exclusive breastfeeding for first six months; then continue for 2+ years |
|
|
Term
| What is exclusive breastfeeding? |
|
Definition
| -the infant only receives breastmilk, without any additional food or drink |
|
|
Term
| what is on demand breastfeeding? |
|
Definition
| -the infant is breastfed as often as the child wants, day and night |
|
|
Term
| What is complementary feeding? |
|
Definition
| when the infant is given foods other than breastmilk while still breastfeeding |
|
|
Term
| What are the two ways that weaning can be defined? |
|
Definition
1. a single event: the cessation of breastfeeding
2. a process that starts with complementary feeding and ends with the child's complete independence from breastmilk |
|
|
Term
| What are four ways that the body naturally prevents / fights against disease physiologically and behaviorally? |
|
Definition
1. fever: raises body temperature and makes it harder for pathogens to live
2. nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: a means of expelling pathogens and toxins harmful to fetus
3. fear: signals dangerous situations and prevents recurrence
4. disgust: prevents contact with potentially infectious substances or individuals |
|
|
Term
| What are some costs associated with body responses to disease? |
|
Definition
1. fever: can cause death or brain damage if too high
2. pathogens have ways around defenses |
|
|
Term
| WHat is sickness behavior? What are some characteristic changes |
|
Definition
organized suite of beahvioral changes
depressed mood, anhedonia, weight loss, appetite changes, lethargy, and social isolation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when your immune system is behaving in a manner that is so effective its detrimental |
|
|
Term
| What parts of the immune system are directly affected by allergies? |
|
Definition
-leukocytes (WBCs)
-cytokines (signaling chemicals, like histamine)
-antibodies and complement (IgE) |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between allergies and sensitivities? |
|
Definition
-allergies: shrimp, peanuts, wheat gluten (celiac)
-sensitivities: wheat gluten (gluten sensitivity) |
|
|
Term
| What is the hygiene hypothesis? |
|
Definition
| a lack of early childhood exposure to infections, agents, etc. increases susceptibility to allergic diseases |
|
|
Term
| What is an autoimmune disorder? |
|
Definition
| a condition that occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys healthy body tissue |
|
|
Term
| What are some important aspects of language? |
|
Definition
1. found in every culture
2. does not have to be explicitly taught
3. complexity of human language is not demonstrated in other animals |
|
|
Term
| What are the universals of grammar? |
|
Definition
1. hierarchial structure
2. nouns vs. verbs
3. words are combined to specify meaning
4. rules specify argument structure
5. rules specify temporal information |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-common view: language required new, language-specific circuits
-alternative view: language adapted to the human brain
-increasingly elaborate languagemust have been increasingly useful
-each generation used cognitive abilities immediately available to communicate as well as possible |
|
|
Term
| What aspects of language suggest modification of existing abilities? (4) |
|
Definition
-neurlogical control of muscles used
-strongly developed larynx
-specific characteristics of speech sounds proudced
-perception of sound |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-single nucleotide polymorphism
-a DNA sequence variation occuring when a single nucleotide in the genome differs between members of a species
-almost all SNPs have only two alleles |
|
|
Term
| What is a microsatellite? |
|
Definition
-SSRs
-polymorphic loci present in nuclear and organellar DNA that consist of repeating units of 1-6 base pairs in length |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-a particular pattern of genetic differences (SNPs or microsatellites) found within a specific chunk of DNA
-a combination of mutations |
|
|
Term
| Differences between mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA |
|
Definition
-mtDNA mutates faster than nuclear DNA
-nuclear DNA is much larger (has about 20,000 genes and 3.2 nucleotides, where as mtDNA has 37 genes and 16,500 nucleotides)
-mtDNA is circular, nuclear DNA is double helix |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-the last living female from whom all existing mtDNA is derived
-she was not the first Homo sapiens woman, and she wasn't the only woman alive at the time
-hers is the only mitochondrial lineage that survives--every time a woman has no children, or only males, that line ends (with respect to mtDNA) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-demonstrates an African origin
-similar sets of arrows representing the movement of people around the world (out of Africa, early into Asia, much later into the Americas) |
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