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| In evolutionary biology, a particular structure, physiological process, or behavior that makes an organism better able to survive and reproduce. Also, the evolutionary process that leads to the development or persistence of such a trait. |
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| Prokaryote in the Domain Bacteria. Genetic material is not in a nucleus[image] |
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| n approach to studying evolution and ecology in which hypotheses are tested by measuring the distribution of states among a large number of species |
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| he largest unit in the current taxonomic nomenclature. Members of the three domains (Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya) are believed to have been evolving independently of each other for at least a billion years |
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| Organisms whose cells contain their genetic material inside a nucleus. Includes all life other than the viruses, archaea, and bacteria. Eukaryotic cells have discrete intracellular compartments, called organelles, including a nucleus that contains the cell’s genetic material.[image] |
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| A group of related, similar species |
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| The maintenance of a steady state, such as a constant temperature or a stable social structure, by means of physiological or behavioral feedback responses. |
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| Hypothesis prediction method |
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| A method of science in which hypotheses are generated, predictions are made from them, and experiments and observations are performed to test the predictions. |
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| The sum total of the chemical reactions that occur in an organism, or some subset of that total (as in respiratory metabolism) |
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| The differential contribution of offspring to the next generation by various genetic types belonging to the same population. The mechanism of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin. |
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| Metabolic processes, carried out by green plants, by which visible light is trapped and the energy used to synthesize compounds such as ATP and glucose.[image] |
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| Organisms whose genetic material is not contained within a nucleus: the bacteria and archaea. Considered an earlier stage in the evolution of life than the eukaryotes.[image] |
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| he basic lower unit of classification, consisting of a population or series of populations of closely related and similar organisms. The more narrowly defined "biological species" consists of individuals capable of interbreeding freely with each other but not with members of other species. |
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| A chemical process in which oxygen is used to make energy from carbohydrates (sugars). Also known as aerobic respiration, oxidative metabolism, or cell respiration. |
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| A negatively charged ion[image] |
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| The number of protons in a nucleus. It determines the chemical properties of an element.[image] |
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| an organism that makes its own food from light energy or chemical energy without eating. Most green plants, many protists (one-celled organisms like slime molds) and most bacteria are autotrophs. Autotrophs are the base of the food chain.[image] |
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| An ion with a positive electrical charge, such as calcium, magnesium and sodium.[image] |
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| any of the more than 100 known substances (of which 92 occur naturally) that cannot be separated into simpler substances and that singly or in combination constitute all matter[image] |
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| a grouping of electrons surrounding the nucleus of an atom; "the chemical properties of an atom are determined by the outermost electron shell"[image] |
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| A negatively charged particle that whizzes around the nucleus of an atom.[image] |
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| The tendency of an atom to draw the electrons in a bond toward itself. |
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| an organism that is not capable of making its own food.[image] |
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| having a strong attraction to water. Hydrophilic molecules are soluble in water and travel with the groundwater. |
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| Having a strong aversion for water. Molecules that dissolve very poorly in water |
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| the sum of the number of neutrons and protons in an atomic nucleus[image] |
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| The sum total of the chemical reactions that occur in an organism, or some subset of that total (as in respiratory metabolism). |
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| The formula of a molecule of a compound. |
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| The sum of the atomic weights of all atoms in a molecule |
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| The smallest particle of a substance that retains the properties of the substance and is composed of one or more atoms.[image] |
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| Lacking in polarity; characterized by an even distribution of positive and negative charges. |
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| In cell biology, the nucleus (from Latin nucleus or nucleus, kernel) is an organelle, found in all eukaryotic cells, which contains most of the cell's genetic material. Nuclei have two primary functions: to control chemical reactions within the cytoplasm and to store information needed for cellular division.[image] |
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| Atoms seek an arrangement that will surround them with eight electrons in the outermost energy level.[image] |
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| the route around the nucleus of an atom that an electron travels[image] |
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having a pair of equal and opposite charges. The electrons have a tendency to be in one location opposed to another. They are attracted to their own and the other molecule's nucelus.
The electrons move around the nuclei with the electrons generating temporary positive and negative charges within the molecule.
Water is a polar molecule |
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| A basic particle in an atom’s nucleus that has a positive electrical charge |
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| A neutron is an uncharged atomic nuclear particle. It has a mass slightly greater than a proton. |
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| The quantity of heat, expressed in Btu, required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of a substance 1°F. |
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| A chemical formula that shows how atoms in a compound are attached to one another. |
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| solid substance in a solution[image] |
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| does work that alters the state of motion of matter; can exist in the form of heat, light, electric, or mechanical energy
Energy of motion[image] |
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| can be stored in chemical bonds, a concentration gradient, and as electric potential[image] |
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| link together simple molecules to form more complex molecules; synthesis of protein --> amino acids; store energy in the chemical bonds that are formed[image] |
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| break down complex molecules into simpler ones and release stored energy |
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| First Law of Thermodynamics |
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| energy is neither created or destroyed:
-the total amount of energy before a transformation equals the total amount after a transformation
-no new energy is created, and no energy is lost[image] |
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| 2nd Law of Thermodynamics |
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| during energy transformation, free energy is lost
-not all energy can be used, and disorder tends to increase
-although a transformation does not change the total amount of energy within a closed system, after any transformation the amount of free energy available to do work is always less than the original amount of energy
-Free energy decreases, unusable energy increases- this is a phenomena known as entropy[image] |
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| Free energy decreases, unusable energy increases[image] |
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| Total energy (usable energy + unusable energy) |
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| usable energy that can do work |
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| rxns that release free energy (-∆G)
"Downhill"[image] |
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| rxns that require or consume free energy (+∆G)[image] |
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every chemical reaction proceeds to a certain extent, but not necessarily to completion (all reactants are not necessarily converted into products)
Reactants -->Products and Products --> Reactants |
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| ATP (adenosnine triphosphate) |
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| cells rely on this for capture, transfer, and storage of free energy needed to do chemical work and maintain cells
-can be converted to a building block for DNA or RNA
- can be hydrolyzed *
-can donate a phosphate group to many different molecules *
ATP + H2O --> ADP + Pi + free energy
this reaction is exergonic (-∆G)
-the equilibrium of the reaction is far to the right, towards ADP production[image] |
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| ADP (adinosine diphosphate) |
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ADP + Pi + free energy --> ATP + H2O
-this reaction is endergonic (+∆G) |
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| does not cause a reaction to take place
-reaction could take place without it
-speeds up the rates of forward and backward reactions
-equilibrium is reached faster
- Most biological catalysts are proteins called enzymes[image] |
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| protein catalysts that affect the rates of biological reactions by lowering the energy barrier; highly specific; “-ase” suffix of name = enzyme[image] |
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| an RNA molecule with catalytic activity |
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| energy needed to initiate a reaction[image] |
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| reactants are called substrates[image] |
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| substrate molecules bind to a specific site on the enzyme surface called the active site[image] |
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The complex produced by the binding of substrate to the active site
-held together by h-bonding, ionic attraction, or covalent bonding
E + S --> ES --> E + P
- enzymes lower the activation energy barrier, but do not affect equilibrium*
- adding enzyme doesn’t affect ∆G |
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a change in enzyme shape caused by substrate binding
To operate, some enzymes require added molecules |
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| bind to enzyme so that substrate will attach to active site. Inorganic molecules |
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| Sometimes needed by enzymes to make substrate attach to active site. Are carbon-containing molecules |
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| are permanently bound to enzymes |
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| metabolism is organized into pathways |
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| inactivates the enzyme by destroying its capacity to interact with the normal substrate (Ex. Malathion) |
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| Inhibitor is similar to enzyme’s natural substrate & binds noncovalently to the active site, wasting the enzyme’s time by preventing its catalytic action |
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| Competitive Inhibitors compete with the natural substrate for the active site |
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| Non-competitive inhibition |
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| Noncompetitive inhibitors bind to an enzyme at a site distinct from the active site |
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| the change in enzyme shape due to noncompetitive inhibitor binding[image] |
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| end product of a metabolic pathway that can inhibit an allosteric enzyme[image] |
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| Feedback Inhibition (End-product inhibitor) |
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| when a cell shuts down the metabolic pathway by having the final product allosterically inhibit the enzyme that catalyzes the commitment step |
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| enzymes that catalyze the same reaction but have different chemical compositions and physical properties |
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