Antigen

Stimulates an immune response/productino of antibodies.

(Most are proteins or polypeptides)

Does not require pre-exposure to pathogen.

1: Barrier defense

2: Internal defense

Antigenic determinant site

(Binds to antigen-binding site)

Innate immunity.

Epithelial tissues block entry.

Mucous membranes line digestive, respiratory, urinary and reproductive tracts.

Lysozymes in tears, saliva and mucous.

Acidic environment in stomach.

Oil and seat glands give human skin low pH

Phagocytic cells: Detect fungal or bacterial components using receptors. They engulf cells, trapping them in vacuoles that fill with lysosome. Lysosome produces gases that poisons the engulfed pathogens, or degrade the components of the pathogens with lysosomes and enzymes.

Neutrophils, Macrophages, Dendritic cells, Eosionphils, Toll-like receptors (TLR)

Phagocytic cell

Circulate in blood and are attracted by signals from infected tissues and engulf and destroy infecting pathogens.

Phagocytic cell

Large phagocytic cells.

Phagocytic cell

Populate tissues that contact the environment, such as skinn. They stimulate adaptive immunity against pathogens.

Phagocytic cell

Important in defending against multicellular invaders, such as parasites. They discharge destructive enzymes.

Under mucous membranes

On phagocytic cell

Binds to fragments of molecules characteristic of pathogens.

Very energy-intensive. Last resort

Includes shivering thermogenesis, non-shivering thermogenesis, torpor, aestivation, and hibernation.

A type of physiological thermoregulation.

Rapid contraction of skeletal muscles to produce heat. 

A type of physiological thermoregulation.

Uncoupling of ATP synthesis in Electron Transport Chain.

A physiological state of decreased metabolism. Adaptation that enables animals to save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions. 

• Many small mammals and birds exhibit daily torpor that is adapted to feeding patterns.

Involved in inflammation. 20-30 proteins, part of enzyme cascade, released in cytokines. Only circulate in the blood as zymogines.

Antibodies activate the complement system.

Histamine that is stored in granules of mast cells, triggers nearby blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable. Macrophages and neutrophils discharge cytokines, signaling molecules that enhance an immune response and promote blood flow to the site of injury or infection. 

Redness and increased temperature is caused by an increase in local blood supply. Swelling is caused by leaking fluid into the neighboring tissues.

Pathogen-specific recognition.

The binding of an antigen receptor to an epitope initiates the activation of the lymphocytes. 

Secondary immune response, being able to combat antigens quicker after the first exposure, is only in adaptive immunity.

Based on two types of lymphocytes, types of white blood cells, T cells and B cells. Lymphocytes originate from the stem cells in the bone marrow. T cells mature in the thymus gland, B cells mature in the bone marrow.

Have the same Y-shaped organization of B cell antigen receptors, but are secreted rather than membrane bound.

Antibodies actually help defend against pathogens.

Thermal Neutral Zone

Alteration of Ta. Mr stays the same.

Upper Critical Temperature

Too hot

Lower critical temperature.

Too cold

Metabolic Rate

Rate of metabolism. CC O₂/Hour

Lipase breaks down triglycerides down to fatty acids and monoglycerides.

Antidiuretic Hormone (vasopressin). Makes epithelium of collecting duct more permeable to water. Increasing water reabsorption, concentratiating and reducing the volume of urine, lowers blood osmolarity back toward the set point. 

ADH is a response to an increase in blood osmolarity. Helps when dehydrated. ADH can lower blood Na⁺ concentration by stimulating water intake.

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Hormone cascade that helps regulate blood pressure.

Released by Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) in response to a drop in both blood volume and pressure . When the body losses both salt and body fluid, not changing osmolarity. RAAS helps maintain set point by stimlating Na⁺ reabsorption.

Short term immunity as a result of the trasfer of antibodies. 

Maternal antibodies from mother to fetus or nursing infant.

Antigen Presenting Cell.

Have MHC II. Important for activation. Dendritic cells, macrophages and some B cells.

(Humoral)

Activated T helpper  cells bind to antigen presented on MHC II of B-cell and produced cytokines that activate B-cell and stimulate proliferation of b-cells which produced plasma cells (and b mem cells) Plasma cells secrete antibodies (soluble antigen receptors) into the fluids.

Human immunodeficiency virus

Retrovirus, attacks CD4 of Th cell

Milk. 

Ig A (some IgM/igG)

1-2mm Max.

Either really thick, or insulated. We have insulated.

(Cleft)

Gap between presynpatic neurons synpase and postsynaptic neuron

Acetylcholinesterase

Hydrolyzes ACH. Serves to terminate synaptic transmission.

Na+ gates open as voltages change-->Na+ diffuses into cell-->inside of cell becomes more positive. Leads to Threshold -- About -55mV. Threshold-->all Na+ gates open-->Na+ rushes in-->Action potential is reached -- usually +30mv.

Cyclic AMP

Part of metabotropic receptor. Neurotransmitter-receptor complex activates a G protein which in turn activates adenylyl cyclase, an enzyme that converts ATP to cAMP. cAMP activates protein kinase A, which phosphorylates specific ion channel proteins in the postsynaptic membrane, causing them to open or close. Because of the amplifying effect of the signal transduction pathway, the binding of neurotransmitter molecule to a metabotropic receptor can open or close many channels.

Skeletal muscle is made up of muscle fibers. The muscle fibers are made up of myofibrils. Myofibrils are made up of thin filaments (actin) and thick filaments (myosin)