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| use light to amplify image through a lens; advantages are that the cell is still alive so you can see it @ work; disadvantages are that the amplification and magnification is limited |
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| uses excited electrons to formulate the structure of organelles or even membranes; advantages are that you get a lot more details and you can see the structure of the membrane and organelles; disadvantages is that the cells are dead |
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| breaks the cell apart into its individual components by spinning the sample of cells at high speeds to break into pieces according to differences in mas |
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| what domains contain prokaryotes? |
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Definition
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| what are some eukaryotic cells |
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| protists, fungi, animals and plants are |
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| plasma membrane, cytosol, chromosomes, ribosomes |
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| nucleoid region that is not membrane enclosed |
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| nucleus which is bounded by a double membrane |
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| the entire interior is referred to as the cytoplasm |
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| cytoplasm is the region between the nucleus and the plasma membrane |
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| membrane enclosed organelles- prokaryotes |
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Definition
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| membrane enclosed organelles- eukaryotes |
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present; compartmentalization helps to isolate functions that would interfere with one another (incompatible metabolic processes)
e.g. mitochondria (glycolysis-pyruvate processing-Krebs’s cycle) |
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| houses most of the cell's DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts |
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separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm
double membrane, each one is a lipid bilayer with proteins |
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| pores of nuclear membranes |
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Definition
at the lip of each pore the inner and outer membranes run together as one
pore complexes are the proteins that serve as regulators of protein, RNA & macromolecules |
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found in a non dividing nucleaus
rRNA is synthesized here for the formation of ribosomes |
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| high levels of protein synthesis |
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| attached to the endoplasmic reticulum and the nuclear envelope; assemble proteins that are used for the insertion into the membrane, for packaging within certain organelles, & protein secretion |
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| free are scattered throughout the cytosol; proteins are used in the cytosol—that are made from the ribosomes |
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| different membranes of the cell |
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| different membranes of the cell |
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| different membranes of the cell |
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| tasks of Endomembrane System |
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Definition
1)protein synthesis and their movement in and out of the cell
2)metabolism & movement of lipids
3)detoxification of poisons |
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| sacs made of membrane which are extremely important for transport and are little |
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| extensive network of membrane (cisterae) |
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| smooth endoplasmic reticulum |
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Definition
1)synthesis of lipids
2)detoxification-adding hydroxyl groups making them more soluble to flush from the body
3)stores calcium ions- can trigger muscle contractions |
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| rough endoplasmic reticulum |
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Definition
1)synthesizes secretory proteins, most often glycoproteins
2) membrane factory
3) transport system |
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| function of Golgi apparatus |
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Definition
manufacturing, warehousing, sorting, & shipping-
macromolecules are modified and stores and then sent elsewhere |
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Definition
act as the receiving and shipping centers
**cis is usually on the ER side |
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Definition
membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes
** not found in plant cells** |
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Definition
| contractile vacuoles pump excess water out of the cell (osmoregulation), plants use vacuoles for hydrolysis |
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| important compounds stored in vacuoles |
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Definition
1)organic and inorganic molecules
2)metabolic by-products
3)pigments
4) poisonous compounds to protect against predators |
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| what is included in the Endomembrane System |
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Definition
| endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear envelope, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, plasma membrane,Mitochondria, Chloroplasts |
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Definition
| site of cellular respiration |
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| make up of the Mitochondria |
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Definition
| cytoplasm—outer membrane—intermembrane space—inner membrane—mitochondrial matrix |
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Definition
1)part of the plastid family
2)converts light energy to chemical energy
3)thylakoid, stroma, & grana |
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gain energy, breaks down bigger molecules into smaller ones
e.g. cellular respiration |
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lose energy
1)biosynthetic pathways
2)amino acid to protein |
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Definition
relative motion of objects
moving objects can perform work by making other things move |
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| energy that matter possesses because of its structure & location |
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arrangement of molecules and atoms
glucose is high in chemical energy |
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1)pyruvate is stripped of a CO2
2)and the remaining acetaldehyde is stripped of electrons and protons to form ethanol and NADH |
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Term
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Definition
| pyruvate is immediately stripped of its electrons & protons to form lactate and NADH |
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Term
| when does lactic fermentation happen? |
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Definition
| which happens in muscle cells when oxygen can’t be transferred readily enough |
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Term
| when does lactic fermentation happen? |
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Definition
| which happens in muscle cells when oxygen can’t be transferred readily enough |
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Term
| three stages of CELLULAR RESPIRATION |
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Definition
1)glycolysis
2)Kreb’s Cycle
3)oxidative phosphorylation |
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Term
| what does glycolysis give us |
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Definition
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| what does citric acid cycle give us |
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Definition
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| what does oxidative phosphorylation give us |
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Definition
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| “sugar splitting” into two three carbon molecules of pyruvate |
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Definition
| adds a phosphate ion to glucose |
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Definition
| converts the modified glucose into its isomer |
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Definition
| adds a second phosphate group to make the molecule symmetrical and ready to split |
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Definition
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| reversible conversion between the two three carbon sugars |
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| triose phosphate dehydrogenase |
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Definition
| transfers electrons and H+ to NAD+ and adds a phosphate ion to the molecule |
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Definition
| phosphate ion is transferred to ADP (ADP was produced in the energy investment phase) |
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Definition
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Definition
| removes water to create a double bond |
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| takes the last phosphate ion and adds it to ADP forming ATP (substrate level phosphorylation) creating another carbonyl group (double bond) |
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Definition
1)remember that phosphate ions are always present in the cell for use in these processes
2)ADP is created to be used to make ATP
3)glucose is split into two which means that in the energy payoff phase you’re making two ATPs for every half giving you a net ATP of 2.
4)NAD+ is another ion that is just suspended in cytosol as a byproduct of other reactions and is used to make the NADH molecule
5)the NADH and ATP created in this entire process are then transferred to the Kreb’s cycle along with the pyruvate to use to make more ATP. |
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Term
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Definition
| an intermediate step to make this molecule which is the starting material for the Kreb’s cycle |
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Term
| what does the KREB’S CYCLE produce |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| acetyl CoA adds it’s two carbon group to oxaloacetate forming citrate and releasing coenzyme A |
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Term
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Definition
| removal and subsequent addition of a water molecule changes the shape of the citrate into its isomer: isocitrate; to be used in the next step |
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Term
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Definition
| electrons are removed from isocitrate and added to NAD+ to form NADH and when it loses the electrons, it becomes more unstable and releases a CO2 molecule |
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Term
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Definition
| there were two –COO- groups so another CO2 is released and then electrons are removed again to form more NADH (which will be used in the ETC) the remainder of the compound is then attached to CoA with, again, another unstable bond to form Succinal CoA |
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Term
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Definition
| a phosphate ion is fed into the cycle to replace the CoA group; this phosphate is taken away by GDP to form GTP; that same phosphate group can be ripped off by ADP to form ATP forming more GDP and the cycle continues |
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Term
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Definition
| two protons are removed leaving a double bond in succinate (remainder of the carbon molecule we’ve been using) to form FADH2 from FAD |
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Term
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Definition
| the fumerate from the step above is then isomerized by the addition of water into malate |
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Term
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Definition
| this compound is then oxidized when NAD+ takes away electrons and a proton to form NADH and leave the carbon compound as oxaloacetate which restarts the cycle |
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Term
| for each acetyl group we feed into the cycle we get? |
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Definition
1)3 NADH
2)FADH2
3)one ATP from substrate level phosphorylation |
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Term
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Definition
| protons enter the stator and move down a channel and bind to the rotor changing the shape of the protein and causing it to spin and therefore causing another rod to spin with it which turns the knob catalyzing the production of ATP from ADP |
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Term
| Where does the energy for the gradient formation come from? |
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Definition
| the exergonic redox reactions of NADH to NAD+ or FADH2 to FAD |
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Term
| How many molecules of ATP do you get from this OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION chain? |
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Definition
| about 32 or 34 molecules of ATP |
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Term
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Definition
| the product of an anabolic pathway inhibits the enzyme that catalyzes an earlier step in the process |
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Term
| what hapens when a cell is working too hard |
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Definition
| ATP concentration drops, respiration speeds up |
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Term
| what happens when there is too much ATP? |
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Definition
| phosphofructokinase slows down in glycolysis |
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