Term
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Definition
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Term
| What does an organism's metabolism do? |
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Definition
| Transforms matter and energy, which are subject to specific laws of thermodynamics |
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Term
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Definition
| Catalyze products in the metabolic pathways |
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Term
| What do catabolic pathways do? |
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Definition
| Break down complex molecules into simpler compounds during a process, which releases energy. |
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Term
| What is broken down into CO2 and H2O in the presence of O2? |
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Definition
| Glucose is broken down during cellular respiration. |
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Term
| What are anabolic pathways? |
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Definition
| Pathways that build up complicated molecules from simpler ones during a process that consumes energy. |
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Term
| What is the 1st law of thermodynamics? |
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Definition
| Energy (or matter) can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can change form. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What is potential energy? |
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Definition
| Stored energy. This includes chemical energy stored in molecular structures (i.e. glucose) |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of energy transformations. |
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Term
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Definition
| The quantity of disorder or randomness. |
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Term
| What's the 2nd law of thermodynamics? |
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Definition
| Every energy transfer increases entropy. While order may increase locally, the universe tends towards randomness. |
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Term
| What do living systems create? |
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Definition
| Ordered structures from less ordered starting materials and they decrease entropy of the universe by using energy to maintain order. (i.e. amino acids which are ordered into polypeptide chains) |
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Term
| What is a living system's free energy? |
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Definition
| Energy that can do work under cellular conditions (constant temp./pressure) |
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Term
| What is the free energy change? (Delta G) |
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Definition
| A reaction that tells us whether the reaction occurs spontaneously and favorably. |
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Term
| What do spontaneous changes not require? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the change in free energy equation? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| They are the change in enthalpy and entropy respectively. |
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Term
| What happens during a spontaneous change? |
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Definition
| Free energy decreases while stability (order) increases. |
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Term
| What is known if ∆G is a negative? |
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Definition
| It is an exergonic reaction that is favorable |
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Term
| If a system is in equilibrium what is known? |
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Definition
| It can perform no work and will eventually die. Cells are in a constant state of disequilibrium. |
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Term
| Exergonic reactions and endergonic reactions are based on what? |
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Definition
| The free energy state (∆G) |
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Term
| What does it mean when there is a +∆G? |
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Definition
| An endergonic reaction has occurred and it absorbs free energy from it's surroundings and is non spontaneous. |
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Term
| Reactions in a closed system eventually reach what? |
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Definition
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Term
| Why do cells maintain a constant state of disequilibrium? |
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Definition
| Because they are an open system. |
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Term
| How does ATP power cellular work? |
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Definition
| By coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions as a way to manage their energy resources to do work. |
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Term
| What are the three main kinds of work? Give examples. |
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Definition
Mechanical - The beating of cilia
Transport - The pumping of substances across membranes (K-Na Pump)
Chemical - Driving endergonic reactions such as the synthesis of polymers from monomers. |
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Term
| What does ATP stand for? ADP? AMP? |
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Definition
| Adenosine Triphophate, Adenosine Diphosphate, and Adenosine Monophosphate. |
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Term
| What is the cell's energy shuttle and provides energy for cellular functions? |
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Definition
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Term
| How is energy released from ATP? |
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Definition
| When the terminal phosphate is broken. It will release 7.3 kcal of energyl/mole of ATP with a -∆G |
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Term
| How can reactions be made favorable for a cell? |
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Definition
| When ATP hydrolysis is coupled to other reactions |
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Term
| How does ATP drive endergonic reactions? |
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Definition
| Through phosphorylation, transferring a phosphate to other molecules creating a more reactive than the original unphosphorylated molecule. |
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Term
| The hydrolysis of ATP powers how many types of cellular work? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| By the phosphorylation of ADP through various catabolic pathways that drive regeneration of ATP from ADP phosphate. |
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Term
| Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions to do what? |
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Definition
| To make them biologically relevant by lowering energy barriers |
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Term
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Definition
| A chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction |
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Term
| Every chemical reaction between molecules involves what? What helps this? |
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Definition
| Bond breaking and bond forming. Enzymes. |
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Term
| What does the enzyme sucrase do? |
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Definition
| Catalyzes the breaking apart of the bond of sucrose and fructose. |
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Term
| What is activation energy? |
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Definition
| The amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction. |
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Term
| What is the transition state? |
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Definition
| The summit of the reaction where the molecules are in an unstable condition. |
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Term
| What does activation energy need to get started? (EA) |
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Definition
| It needs an "spark plug" to speed up the reaction. An enzyme can catalyze/speeds reaction by lowering the activation energy barrier but not the ∆G |
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Term
| What is the reaction coordinate? |
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Definition
| It's the energy profile for an exergonic reaction that releases energy into its surroundings. |
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Term
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Definition
| The reactant molecule that an enzyme reacts on. |
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Term
| How does an enzyme bind to the substrate? |
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Definition
| By it's active site which is the specific region on the enzyme where the substrate binds. |
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Term
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Definition
| Where the substrate groups into the active site to a position that enhances or tightens their ability to catalyze the chemical reactions with their substrate. |
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Term
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Definition
| The site that can lower the EA Barrier by orienting the substrates correctly straining the substrates bonds, providing a favorable microenvironment and covalently bonding to the substrate. |
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Term
| What are an enzyme affected by? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Non-protein enzyme helpers |
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Term
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Definition
| Organic cofactors for enzymes |
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Term
| What are competitive inhibitors do? |
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Definition
| They bind to the active site of an enzyme, competing with the substrate |
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Term
| What do noncompetitive inhibitors do? |
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Definition
| They bind to another part of an enzyme, changing the function |
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Term
| Metabolic pathways must be what? |
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Definition
| Tightly regulated to control cellular metabolism. |
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Term
| What is allosteric regulation? |
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Definition
| A term used to describe any case in which a protein's function at one site is affected by binding of a regulatory molecule at another site. |
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Term
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Definition
| A form of allosteric regulation that amplifies enzyme activity. |
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Term
| What is feedback inhibition? |
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Definition
| Where the end product of metabolic pathway feeds back upon itself and shuts down the pathways. It prevents a cell from wasting chemical energy. |
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Term
| How does energy enter most ecosystems? How does it leave? |
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Definition
| As light energy. It leaves as heat. |
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Term
| What is stored in organic molecules that mitochondria and eukaryotes use as fuel for cellular respiration? |
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Definition
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Term
| How to catabolic pathways yield energy? |
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Definition
| By oxidizing and breaking down organic molecules via an exergonic process. |
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Term
| Name a catabolic process. (Hint: Through a partial degredation of sugars that occurs in the absence of oxygen.) |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathways? What does it consume? What does it yield? |
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Definition
| Catabolic Respiration; Oxygen and organic molecules; ATP |
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Term
| What must cells generate in order to keep working? |
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Definition
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Term
| Catabolic pathways yield energy based on their ability to cause what? |
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Definition
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Term
| What happens when a substance loses electrons? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| The process of a substance gaining electrons. |
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Term
| During cell respiration, what is oxidized? What is reduced? |
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Definition
| Glucose is oxidized and Oxygen is reduced. |
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Term
| What is NAD+? What role does it play in cellular respiration? |
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Definition
| NAD+ is a coenzyme. In cell respiration glucose is oxidized. Instead of being transferred to oxygen they are passed off to NAD+ |
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Term
| What is NADH? What does it do? |
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Definition
| The reduced form of NAD+. It passes electrons to the top of the electron transport chain. |
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Term
| What happens if electron transfer is not stepwise? |
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Definition
| A large release of energy occurs. |
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Term
| Where is the electron transport chain located? |
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Definition
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Term
| During cellular respiration, what path do electrons follow? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the stages of cellular respiration? |
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Definition
| Glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, and Oxidative Phosphorylation. |
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Term
| What is glycolysis and where does it occur? |
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Definition
| It occurs in the cytoplasm and it breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. |
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Term
| What is the citric acid cycle? Where does it occur? |
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Definition
| It occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and utilizes pyruvate and completes the breakdown of glucose. |
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Term
| What is oxidative phosphorylation and where does it occur? |
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Definition
| It occurs on the inner mitochondrial membrane and drives the synthesis of ATP by the transfer of electrons from NADH in electron transport chain. |
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Term
| How do glycolysis and the citric acid cycle generate ATP? |
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Definition
| By substrate level phophorylation |
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Term
| What are the two major phases of glycolysis? |
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Definition
| The energy investment phase the energy payoff phase. |
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Term
| What must happen before the citric acid cycle can being? |
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Definition
| Pyruvate must first be transported and converted to acetyl CoA which links the cycle to glycolysis. |
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Term
| What does the citric acid cycle utilize? |
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Definition
| Acetyl CoA, NAD, FAD, ADP |
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Term
| What does the citric acid generate? |
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Definition
| FADH, 3 NADH, ATP and 2CO2 |
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Term
| What do NADH and FADH account for? |
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Definition
| Most of the energy extracted from food. |
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Term
| What powers ATP synthesis? |
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Definition
| NADH and FADH's donation of electrons to the electron transport chain. |
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Term
| What is the enzyme that synthesizes ATP? What is another name for it? |
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Definition
| ATP Synthase. Jesus Enzyme. |
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Term
| What creates a proton gradient? |
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Definition
| Electrons moving through the electron transport chain, it pumps H+ from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, creating the gradient. |
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Term
| What does the proton gradient do? |
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Definition
| It stores energy and drives chemiosmosis. |
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Term
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Definition
| It's an energy coupling mechanism that uses energy in the form of a proton gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work and formation of ATP |
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Term
| About how much glucose energy is transferred to ATP during cellular respiration? How much ATP does it make? |
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Definition
| About 40% of the energy from glucose. Appox. 38 ATP. |
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Term
| How much glucose would generate 34 ATP by oxidative phosphorylation? |
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Definition
| About 1 molecule of glucose. |
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Term
| How many molecules of glucose yield 6CO2 and 4ATP during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle? |
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Definition
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Term
| How much ATP is generated from each NADH by glycolysis and the citric acid cycle? |
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Definition
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Term
| What allows some cells to produce ATP without oxygen? |
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Definition
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Term
| What can produce ATP with or without oxygen in either anaerobic or aerobic conditions when it is coupled with fermentation? |
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Definition
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Term
| Name two types of fermentation. |
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Definition
| Lactic Acid Fermentation and Alcohol Fermentation. |
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Term
| Cellular respiration is controlled by what? |
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Definition
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Term
| What's is photosynthesis? What part of the plants participate in this? |
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Definition
| The process that converts solar energy into chemical energy and helps nourish the biosphere. The chloroplasts. |
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Term
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Definition
| They are the self feeders that produce organic molecules. |
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Term
| Where are chloroplasts located? |
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Definition
| Inside the mesophyll tissues in the interior of the leaf. |
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Term
| What the the pores on the leave that O2 and CO2 leave and enter? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the two membranes in the chloroplasts? What is the aqueous space surrounding them? |
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Definition
| The thylakoids and grana. The stroma is the aqueous space. |
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Term
| What is the reverse of photosynthesis? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the two processes of photosynthesis? What are their functions? |
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Definition
Light reactions - occur in the grana, split water, release O2, produce ATP, and form NADPH.
Calvin Cycle - Occurs in the stroma, forms sugar from CO2, using ATP for energy and NADPH for reducing power. |
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Term
| What is chlorophyll a? chlorophyll b? What are their differences? |
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Definition
| The main photosynthetic pigment. an accessory pigment. They absorb different wavelengths of light and pass the energy to chlorophyll a. |
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Term
| Light is a form of what kind of energy? |
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Definition
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Term
| What happens when a pigment absorbs light? |
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Definition
| Its electrons go from a grounded state to an excited state that releases heat energy and sometimes fluorescence. |
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Term
| Light reactions convert solar energy to what? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where does photosynthesis take place? |
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Definition
| In the thylakoid membrane. |
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Term
| What does the Calvin Cycle use to convert CO2 to sugar? |
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Definition
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Term
| What distinguishes living things from non living things? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is reproduction based on? |
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Definition
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Term
| How do unicellular organisms reproduce? |
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Definition
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Term
| Why do Multicellular organisms depend on cell division? |
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Definition
| To develop fertilized cells or eggs, to grow cells to develop tissue, and to repair and renew cells that die from normal wear and tear. |
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Term
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Definition
| The life of a cell from its origin to its death. |
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Term
| What does cell division require? |
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Definition
| Identical genetic material distributed to two daughter cells |
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Term
| Within a cell, what is it's genetic information called? What do they range from? |
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Definition
| Genome. They range from single DNA molecules to several DNA molecules. |
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Term
| How many somatic cells do humans have? |
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Definition
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Term
| How many sets of chromosomes are in gametes? In somatic cells? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the narrow section that connects chromatids called? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the division of the nucleus called? |
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Definition
| Cytokinesis or Karyokinesis |
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Term
| How many stages of cell division are there? What are they? |
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Definition
| There are 5: Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase |
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Term
| What can is the difference between regular cells and cancer cells? |
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Definition
| Cancer cells don't stop growing/dividing, they don't need to be anchored, they metastasize, they don't exhibit density dependence |
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Term
| What is variation in genetics? |
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Definition
| Where offspring look slightly different from their parent. |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of heredity and hereditary variation |
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Term
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Definition
| the transmission of genes on chromosomes and their traits from one generation to the next |
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Term
| What are genes? What are they made up of? |
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Definition
| They're the units of heredity and are composed of DNA |
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Term
| T/F. Each gene does not have a specific locus (location) |
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Definition
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Term
| In sexual reproduction, where do we inherit our chromosomes from? |
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Definition
| One set chromosomes are from our mother and one from our father. |
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Term
| What is produced in asexual reproduction? |
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Definition
| An identical copy, or clone, is produced. |
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Term
| What is a diploid cell? A haploid cell? What is their letter used to annotate them? |
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Definition
| A diploid cell has two sets of each of its chromosomes and a haploid has only half. They are annotated by 2n and n, respectively. |
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Term
| What happens in a cell with DNA synthesis? |
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Definition
| The chromosomes duplicated and two identical sister chromatids are produced. |
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Term
| What kind of cell has 46 chromosomes? How many sets are there? |
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Definition
| A human somatic cell. There are two sets. |
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Term
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Definition
| A visual representation of the chromosomes in a cell that can be used to determine their homology or similarity. |
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Term
| What happens during fertilization of gametes in humans? |
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Definition
| A diploid zygote is formed which will develop into an adult organism. |
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Term
| When does meiosis occur in animals? Are they the only haploid cells? |
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Definition
| It occurs during gamete formation and yes, they are the only haploid cells. |
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Term
| T/F. Plants and some algae exhibit an alternation of generations where the life cycle includes both diploid and haploid multicellular stages. |
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Definition
| Well, that would be true, as a matter of fact. |
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Term
| In most fungi and some protists, meiosis produces what? What do these give rise to? What do they do? |
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Definition
| Haploid cells, which changes into haploid multicellular organisms, which carries out mitosis producing cells that will become gametes |
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Term
| What is the difference between meiosis and mitosis? |
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Definition
| Meiosis resembles mitosis, but reduces the number of chromosomes sets diploid to haploid. |
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Term
| What does Meiosis 1 do? Meiosis 2? |
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Definition
| M1 separates the chromosomes and makes them haploid. M2 separates the sister chromatids and makes 4 daughters cells with 1/2 the chromosomes as the parent cell. |
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