A double stranded nucleic acid

Deoxyribonucleic Acid 

a single stranded nucleic acid

Ribonucleic Acid 

Transcript the Following DNA Strand into RNA

GCTACGTGCTA

Nitrogenoues Base

Deoxyribose in DNA

Ribose in RNA

and a Phosphate group (PO₄)

Deoxyribose or Ribose

Nitrogenous Base 

What is this molecule below and where is it found?

[image]

Ribose

RNA

What is this molecule below?

[image]

Deoxyribose

DNA

Phosphodiester

Links together all the nucleotides 

Five carbon ring joined with six carbon ring

Adenine

Guanine 

a Six carbon ring

Cytosine

Thymine (DNA)

Uracil (RNA) 

Guanine-Cytosine 

Adnine-Thymine (DNA)

Adnine-Uracil (RNA) 

All organisms are composed of cells

The cell is the basic living unit of orgonization

all cells are derived from an existing cell 

plasma membrane

DNA

cytoplasm

ribosomes 

Genetic material is in cytoplasm and not contained

consists of only one molecule of DNA

has small ribosomes

photosynthetic membranes

genetic material located in membran bound nucleus

numerous molecules of DNA

genetic material is organized into chromosomes

large ribosomes

orgonelles 

Protista

Fungi

Plantae

Animalia 

DNA

histones

On the end of the polypeptide chain there is a signal sequence which acts as a zip code

a signal recogintion protein (SRP) binds to this signal sequence and "drives" it over to the Rough ER where the polypeptide chain can continue to be produced. 

Folds polypeptide chains into fuctional proteins

Phospholipid Membrane Production 

Can also produce glycoproteins (pproteins with a carbohydrate attached) 

Lipid Production
Detoxifies Poison and Drug

Regulate Calcium ions in cytoplasm 

contain their own DNA and ribosomes

can divide by itself 

Contained in Chloroplast

Green Pigment 

ATP (Energy)

NADPH (Electron Carrier) 

Pair this strand of DNA with its counterpart

CTAGGTACCCAGG 

Space  found in lysosomes and chloroplast

A double stranded nucleic acid

Deoxyribonucleic Acid 

a single stranded nucleic acid

Ribonucleic Acid 

Transcript the Following DNA Strand into RNA

GCTACGTGCTA

Nitrogenoues Base

Deoxyribose in DNA

Ribose in RNA

and a Phosphate group (PO₄)

Deoxyribose or Ribose

Nitrogenous Base 

What is this molecule below and where is it found?

[image]

Ribose

RNA

What is this molecule below?

[image]

Deoxyribose

DNA

Phosphodiester

Links together all the nucleotides 

Five carbon ring joined with six carbon ring

Adenine

Guanine 

a Six carbon ring

Cytosine

Thymine (DNA)

Uracil (RNA) 

Guanine-Cytosine 

Adnine-Thymine (DNA)

Adnine-Uracil (RNA) 

All organisms are composed of cells

The cell is the basic living unit of orgonization

all cells are derived from an existing cell 

plasma membrane

DNA

cytoplasm

ribosomes 

Genetic material is in cytoplasm and not contained

consists of only one molecule of DNA

has small ribosomes

photosynthetic membranes

genetic material located in membran bound nucleus

numerous molecules of DNA

genetic material is organized into chromosomes

large ribosomes

orgonelles 

Protista

Fungi

Plantae

Animalia 

DNA

histones

On the end of the polypeptide chain there is a signal sequence which acts as a zip code

a signal recogintion protein (SRP) binds to this signal sequence and "drives" it over to the Rough ER where the polypeptide chain can continue to be produced. 

Folds polypeptide chains into fuctional proteins

Phospholipid Membrane Production 

Can also produce glycoproteins (pproteins with a carbohydrate attached) 

Lipid Production
Detoxifies Poison and Drug

Regulate Calcium ions in cytoplasm 

contain their own DNA and ribosomes

can divide by itself 

Contained in Chloroplast

Green Pigment 

ATP (Energy)

NADPH (Electron Carrier) 

Pair this strand of DNA with its counterpart

CTAGGTACCCAGG 

Space  found in lysosomes and chloroplast

What is Biology?

Biology is the study of Life.

Genetic Engineering

The manipulation of Genetic Material for Pratical Purposes

What are the Steps to Genetic Engineering?

1. Cleave the Genetic Material and remove the desired strand

2. Cut plasmid DNA and insert the desierd strand.

3. Insert Plasmid into Bacteria

4. Bacteria will mass produce the desired DNA

AIDS Stands For...

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

Steps of Scientific Method

1. Choose a Topic

2. Make a question/Experiment

3.Formulate Hypothesis

4. Make Prediction (if...then)

5. Execute Experiment

6. Record Data

7. Draw Conclusions (Graph/Abstract)

Evolution

The theory that organisms change or adapt over time.

Lamark's Theory

If an Orgonism uses a part of its body frequently, that part will become stronger while, in contrast, those parts which are not used frequently will become smaller and eventually disappear.

Darwin's Theory

 a. As a population increases in number, the tendency for competition within the population also increases as resources become limited.

b. Those Organisms posessing favorable adaptations that provide them with an advantage under these stressed conditions will survie and reproduce wheras those organisms without these adaptations will tend to have less offspring.

c. As these organisms that survie bass down those inherited favorable adaptations to subsequent generations of offspring, these charecteristics accumulate within the population; causing a population change.

Natural Selection

The process which drives Darwin's Theory

CD4 Receptor

The receptor on the cell that AIDS will connect to and attack.

 AIDS Attack Process

Starts as RNA

Reverse transcription to DNA

DNA enters nucleus

Becomes part of cell's DNA

Nucleus produces mRNA of AIDS

mRNA leaves nucleus to create more of the Orignal RNA

Uses of Genetic Manipulation

Heart Therepy

Human Growth Hormones

Pest Resistance in Plants

Removing Toxic Waste

1 meter = x inches

1 meter = 39.37 inches

1 inch = x cm.

1 inch = 2.54 cm.

Prefix for a thousand times a unit

Kilo-

Hecto-

Prefix for tenths of units

Deci-

Prefix for 10 times a unit

Deca-

Prefix for Tenths of a unit

.x  

Deci- 

Prefix for thousanths of a unit

.00x 

What is the x Variable and y variable

[image]

X= Days

Y= Degrees  

Matter 

Atoms 

The basic unit of matter and the smallest 

Dalton's Atomic Theory 

a. All matter consits of tiny particles (atoms)

b. Atoms are indestructible and unchangeable (The Discovery of Sub-Atomic Particles Changed That) 

c. Elements were charecterized by the mass of their atoms (all atoms of the same element would have the same mass, isotopes changed that) 

Molecules 

Element

Elements Can be bonded together to form... 

Carbon

Oxygen

Hydrogen

Nitrogen

Phosphorus

Sulfur

Calcium

Poatassium 

Trace Elements 

Elements required by organisms in very small amounts. 

(Iron and Iodine) 

Periodic Table 

Protons 

Neutral Atom 

Nucleus of Atom 

Contains Electrons and Protons

Energy Orbitals 

Electrons move in these around the nucleus 

What Charge is the Nucleus? 

Positive because of the presence of protons 

Isotopes 

Atoms of an element that have an altered amount of neutrons and therefore a different mass number. 

Radioactive Decay

Negative Beta Decay 

A beta (-) particle is emitted from an unstable atom

In addition one of the nuetrons becomes a proton

Since the number of protons has chaned the atomic number has changed therefore changing the atom.

(Goes Up on Scale: Carbon6 goes to Nitrogen7) 

A positron (B+ particle) is released by the unstable atom.

A proton is converted into a neutron

This reduces the atomic number and changes the element.

The new element moves down on the Periodic Table

Carbon6 becomes Boron5 

Potential Energy 

Energy Levels 

Electron Carriers

No more than two electrons can fit in one orbital 

Second Energy Level 

Electron Configuration of:

 Cl
 Atomic Number 17

1S²---2S²---2P⁶---3S²---3P⁵

What is significant about the Outermost Energy Level? 

It contains Valence Electrons which are the electrons that are used in the bonding process. 

Valence Electron

The outermost electrons of an atom.

An atom is stable when there are 8 valence electrons in the outermost level. 

Electrons are shared equally between the two atoms and they therefore have a similar electronegitvity.

Atoms will bond Non-Polar Covalently if they have an Electronegitivity between 0 and .4 

The electrons are still shared between the atoms but one of the atoms gets more electrons.

Electronegativity is .5-1.7 

The stripping away of an atom's electron

Electronegativity

>1.7 

Numbers 1-6 on the Ph Scale

More H⁺

Less OH^-

Numebr 7 on Ph Scale

Equal H⁺ and OH^-

Numbers 8-14 on the Ph Scale

Less H⁺

More  OH^-

Carbon has 4 Valence electrons in 4 different directions allowing for 4 seperate bonds in 4 seperate directions.

Geometric Isomer 

What is so important about how isomers can affect the Molecule? 

Fuctional Groups 

Groups of atoms located on the carbon skeleton. 

Def. Of Hydroxyl Group 

Hydrogen atom bonded to an Oxygen atom 

Chemical Formula of an Hydroxyl Group 

O-H, H-O, OH or HO 

 Organic molecules which contain Hydroxyl groups are known as...

Alchohols 

Def. of Carbonyl Group 

A carbon atom double bonded to a oxygen atom. 

Chemical Formula of a Carbonyl Group 

C=O 

If the Carbonyl group is at the end of a carbon chain, what is the whole molecule classified as? 

Aldehyde 

If the Carbonyl Group is not located on the end of a molecule but somewhere else, what is the moelcule classified as? 

Ketone 

What type of Carbonyl Molecule is This?

 [image]

What kind of Carbonyl Molecule is This?

[image]

Def of Carboxyl Group 

An Oxygen Double Bonded to a carbon which is bonded to a Hydroxyl Group 

Chemical Formula of Carboxyl Group

C=O

                                   |

                                   OH

Molecules containing a Carboxyl Group are known as... 

Carboxylic Acids

Def. Of Amino Group

Nitrogen Atom Bonded to two Hydrogen Atoms 

What is special about an amino group? 

It acts as a base since the Nitrogen atom can capture free protons. 

A molecule containing only an amino group are... 

Amines

Chemical Formula of an Amino Group 

NH₂

Def. of Sulfhydryl Group

Sulfur atom bonded to one Hydrogen Atom 

Chemical Formula of a Sulfhydryl Group 

SH or S-H 

 Molecules containing a Sulfhydryl Group are... 

Thiols

Def. of Phosphate Group

Phosphate atom bonded to 4 Oxygen Atoms 

Chemical Formula of a Phospate Group 

PO₄

What is special about Phosphate Groups? 

They can "store" energy that can be passed from one molecule to another via a phosphate group.

Molecules containing Phosphate Groups are known as... 

Organic Phosphates 

Name the Functional Group, The Chemical Formula and the name of the Compound.

  H H

Hydroxyl Group

OH or HO

Alcohol 

Name the Functional Group, The Chemical Formula and the name of the Compound.

Carbonyl

Aldehyde

C=O 

Name the Functional Group, The Chemical Formula and the name of the Compound.

                          H O  H

                          |  ||  |

                       H-C-C--C-H

                          |      |

                          H     H

Carbonyl

Ketone

C=O 

Name the Functional Group, The Chemical Formula and the name of the Compound.

                                    H H    O

                                     |  |   //

                                  H-C-C--C

                                     |  |    \

                                     H H    OH

Carboxyl

Carboxylic Acid

C=O

\

  OH
 

Name the Functional Group, The Chemical Formula and the name of the Compound.

                                 H  H  H

                                  |  |   /

                               H-C-C-N

                                   |  |   \
                                   H H    H

Amino Group

Amines

NH₂

Name the Functional Group, The Chemical Formula and the name of the Compound.

                                    H  H

                                    |   |

                                H-C--C-SH

                                    |   |

                                    H  H

Sulfhydryl

Thiols

SH 

Name the Functional Group, The Chemical Formula and the name of the Compound.

                                   H  H

                                   |   |

                               H-C--C-PO4

                                  |    |

                                  H   H

Phosphate Group

Organic Phosphate

PO₄

MacroMolecules 

Large Molecules resulted from the joining of smaller molecules. 

Polymerization 

The Linking of smaller molecules so as to form larger chains.

Polymer 

A chain of monomers 

Monomers 

the subunits of a polymer

Dehydration synthesis 

By removing water from the participating molecules in the binding process, the molecules can then bind. 

Hydrolysis 

The process of breaking apart polymers by adding water. 

Carbohydrates 

Molecules such as sugars, starch, cellulose and chitin. 

Monosaccharides 

The simplest carbohydrates made of only one sugar. 

Disaccharides 

A carbohydrate made of two sugars or monosccharides. Maltose, Lactose, and Sucrose 

Polysaccharides 

100-1000 monosaccharides 

Storage Polysaccharides

Include starch (long glucose chain). Plants store starch in plastids. Animals in liver and muscle cells(as glycogen) both plants and animals can break down the starch for glucose.

Lipids 

A catagory of Hydrophobic molecules

includes fats steriods and phospholipids. 

H

|

  H-C-OH

 | 

   H-C-OH 

 | 

   H-C-OH

 |

  H 

Glycerol

3 carbon alcohol at the end of all fats and phospholipids. 

(H on top and bottom of each carbon) 

-OH-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C... 

Saturated Fatty Acid 

OH-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C

                                \\
                                             C-C-C-C...

UNSATURATED FATTY ACID 

Fats 

Glycerol with 3 fatty acid chains. 

Uses of Fats 

Energy storage and protection of vital organs. 

Phospholipid 

Glycerol with 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group

Steriod 

four fused carbon rings with functional groups on them 

 Cholesterol

A steriod which is the basis for the formation of other steriods. 

Proteins 

Polymers constructed from a set of 20 different amino acids. 

Amino Acids 

A hydrogen atom

a carboxyl group

an amino group

and a variable (r) group

Uses of Proteins 

Structual Support

Cell signaling

Gene expression 

Polypeptide Chain 

A chain of amino acids joined together.

(same as primary structure) 

Peptide Bond 

The bond used in a polypeptide chain beteen the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another. 

Amino Acid N-Terminus 

Amino Group End 

Amino Acid C-Terminius 

Carboxyl Group End 

Proteins are made by... 

folding polypeptide chains 

Secondary Structure 

Folds and coils of the polypeptide chain forming helixes and Beta Pleated Sheet 

Tertiary Structure 

Irrgular formations due to bonds between the R groups 

Quaternary Structure 

The joining of 2+ tertiary structures to form one protein

Nucleic Acids 

DNA (Deoxiribonuclec Acid)

RNA (Ribonucleic acid) 

Phosphodiester Bonds 

The bond which links nucleotides.

[image]

Alpha Glucose (Can be broken down in animals)

Beta Glucose (Cannot be broken down in animals) 

Enzymes 

Catalytic Proteins (Catalyst is a chemical agent that changes the rate of a reaction) 

Substrate

What enzymes act on 

Active Site

Where the substrate fits into the enzyme

Induced Fit 

The active site will contract to tighten the gap between the enzyme and substrate

Inhibiters 

molecules which Can stop enzyme actvity.

Competitive Inhibitors

Look like substrate and will block active site. 

Non-Competitive Inhibitors 

Binds to another part of the enzyme altering the shape of the active site.

Vacuoles 

Membrane enclosed sacks within the cell

food vacuole

regulates water in protisst 

waste disposal in plants (central vacuole) 

Tonoplast 

The membrane that surrounds the plant's central vacuole

Cytoskeleton 

Mechanical Support for cell 

Microtubules 

Hollow rods made out of tubulin 

Microfilaments 

Actin based filaments used to reshape cell

Intermediate Filaments 

In the middle of micro tubules and filaments 

Plasmodesmata

the channels between the cell wall in plants. 

 TIGHT junctions

stops molecules from moving between two cells 

Cell Wall 

Thicker than membrane composed of cellulose and other sugars.

Found only in plants, prokaryotes, some protozoans and fungi 

Plasma membrane

7-8 nm. in thickness

regulates passage in and out of cell 

Integral Proteins 

Transverse the membran the hydrophobic regions interact with the lipid tails of the phospholipid bilayer. 

Peripheral proteins

attached to surface of membrane 

Osmosis 

The movement of water between the cell and its outside enviornment 

Diffusion 

The movement of particles between the cell and its outside enviornment.

Hypotonic 

More Water

Less Solute 

Hypertonic 

More Solute

Less Water