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Bio Midterm 3-bicoid-evolution
Bledsoe midterm 3
82
Biology
Undergraduate 1
04/06/2008

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Term
BICOID GENE
Definition
Master regulatory gene in the cytoplasm of the mother--needed for the establishment of the anterior and posterior portion of the drosophila fruit fly..maternal effects-maternal mRNA..where the concerntration of the Bicoid is the most will yield the anterior end and Less will yeild the posterior end..if the concentration of Bicoid gene is uniformed..will yeild two anterior end...if Bicoid is not expressed, it will result in two posterior end..Bicoid is a Master Regulatory gene that controlls the gap genes.
Term
DETERMINATION
Definition
Determination is the progressive restriction of the developmental potential of the cell--that is it results in the LIMITATION of what the cells can become..it is a commitment where the cell choose what they want to become...after this stage..they defferentiate into specific cells.
Term
Organogenesis
Definition
Organ-means organs right? genesis-means the production of form--hence organogenesis means that the production of organs..such as the liver, kidney, the notochord forms the neurotube.
Term
Morphogenesis
Definition
Morpho- means body..genesis means formation....refers to the production of body parts..the development of shape of the Body, its organization and parts. ex. Limb pattern formation.
Term
Growth
Definition
simply means an increase in size of the body parts--when you grow, you increase in size..your leg gets bigger your hand get bigger and does your head.
Term
Totipotency
Definition
refers to the abiligy of a cell to yield a fully formed organism...totipotency or totalpotential--if you have totalpotential, then you have the ability to yield a fully formed organism...TOTALPOTENTIAL
Term
Results of Totipotency
Definition

1. The cell must be able to yield ALL cell types that is characteristic of an adult.

2. the cell must be able to direct full development..it must have the INSTRUCTION neccessary for proper development to form a fully forme Adult 

Term
CONTACT INHIBITION
Definition
Refers to the idea that whent the cells contact each other, they inhibit further cell divison. This is not characteritics of Cancer cellls. Cancer cells do not have contact inhibition.  Hence the continue to divide and divide
Term
MOSAIC DEVELOPMENT
Definition
       refers to the restriction of the fate of the first two cells during cleavage.  This however, yields identical twins in humans
Term
MyoD
Definition
is a specific protein for skeletal muscle. Its a specific trancription factor. because it expresses only in skeletal muscle..Cells expressing MyoD will be a skeletal muscle..you can think of MyoD as an activator that binds to an ehancer to upregulate a gene.  When express, MyoD can activate muscle protein genes such as ACTIN and MYOSIN..MyoD is a master regulatory gene..
Term
ACTIN AND MYOSIN
Definition
Skeletal muscle protein gene under the control of MyoD. A cell expressing these genes, will become a skeletal muscle.
Term
        CYTOPLASMIC DETERMINANT
Definition
Cytoplasmic Determinants refers to material such as mRNA that are already packaged by the fruit fly's mother in her Cytoplasm..These are known as maternal effects..mRNA's in the mother's cytoplasm are translated directly into proteins as the fruit fly develops..Hence NO TRANSCRIPTION and TRANSLATION of the Genes of the cell occurs. Maternal mRNA is responsible for cell divison, Growth and regulates how different genes are turned on in the cell.
Term
Describe how the sheep DOLLY was cloned and what factors are responsible for the difference  between Dolly and her mother.
Definition
The Zygote's nucleus was destroyed and then a dipliod nuclei was placed in the developing zygote, and then the cell was given conditons to promote development @ a very low success Dolly was cloned.  Dolly was close to her mother. However 3 thing contributed to their differences 1. Telomere sequences get shortened. 2. Mutation 3. Dolly mother's mother uterus was different from dolly's mother.
Term
AXIS SPECIFICATION IN DROSOPHILA
Definition

Occurs by way of maternal effect genes-also known as egg polarity genes..eg.BICOID GENE(bicoid is the mutant phenotype)

If BICOID GENE is mutated or deleted, the fly develops two TAIL ENDS(that is the fly lack Anterior end) A Mutation in BICOID GENE results in TWO TAIL ends. 

Term
PATTERN FORMATION
Definition

refers to the establishment of precise Spatial Relationship of parts during development eg. tetrapod limbs.

- crucial is the establisment of HEAD(anterior) and TAIL( posterior) in fruit fly.

 

Precise-pattern-parts-formation

Term
Explain the BICOID GENE and its relationship to the production of the WILDTYPE DROSOPHILA(normal drosophila)
Definition

The BICOID gene is neccessary for proper development of the anterior and posterior parts in drosophila

-Occurs by a way of Concentration gradient.

-one side of the zygote(LOCALIZED) has Maternal mRNA for the Bicoid protein.

-cell that have the Maternal mRNA will express the BICOID protein-Egg polarity gene

-Critical to the development of drosophila 

 

Term
What happens if the BICOID GENE is Uniformed in the developing fruit fly? If it is mutated?
Definition

If the BICOID GENE is UNIFORMED, then the developing fruit fly will have 2 ANTERIOR ENDS. If the Bicoid gene is Mutated, then the organims forms TWO POSTERIOR ENDS

-The fruit fly will have two tails--it will have leg developing where antennae should develop. 

Term

GIVE THE CORRECT SEGMENTATION IN DROSOPHILA

Head Region? Thorax Region? Abdominen Region? What genes are responsible for the segmentation?

Definition

HEAD REGION = 3 Segments=Antennae

THORAX REGION = 3 segments =Wings

ABDOMINEN REGION = 8 segments 

Segment polarity genes are responsible for setting up these segments under the control of the BICOID genes. 

Term
GAP GENES
Definition
establishes the broad regions of the anterior and posterior axis in drosophila
Term
PAIR RULE GENES
Definition

-Maps out the segments in 7 pairs (14 segments total).

- Mutation here result in the lost of either the ODD or EVEN segments of the developing drosophila.

-if a drosophila was missing a leg, it's because of the pair rule genes. 

 

Term
SEGMENT POLARITY GENES
Definition

-Under the control of the pair rule genes

-set up the anterior and posterior axis of EACH segment 

-14 Segments each properly arranged by the segment polarity genes in terms of anterior and posterior axis. 

- The mutant phenotype has a MIRROR IMAGE(instead of getting anteior the right way, you get the posterior end)

 

Term
HOMEOTIC GENE
Definition

Master regulatory gene that encode transcription factors for the expression of genes involved in body parts production-that is the "specify what goes where among the 14 segments".

-body parts - eg. Bicoid is hometic gene

- can take segments and form alternative body parts 

Term
HOMEODOMAINS
Definition

are DNA-that encode proteins

- protein of 60 amino acids 

Term
HOMEOBOX
Definition

180 bp of DNA nucleotides

-master regulatory gene 

Term
Apoptosis
Definition

Programmed cell death

-essential for normal development in humans

-can be considered as evolutionary adaptation for normal development

-In humans cell regress-NO WEBBING

-in Ducks webbed feet is an adapation for swimming

Term

(ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY)

 

COMMUNITIES 

Definition
refers to a set of different species living together
Term
ECOSYSTEMS
Definition
composed of the sets of the species living together and the NON-LIVING SURROUNDINGS in the community.
Term
What is the estimated AGE OF THE EARTH? and What Evidence can we use to date the AGE of the Earth?
Definition

4.6 billion years according to evidence from chemistry, geology, and physics

We can 1. use the thick layers of Sedimentary Rock 2.  RadioIsotope Dating(carbon 12) 

Term
HUTTON?
Definition

proposed the geological principle of gradualism

Gradualism- said that PROFOUND changes result from SLOW but continues process.

 

Hutton=gradualism=SLOW=geology=Rocky mountains= 

Term
LYELL?
Definition

Proposed that process are UNIFORM

. Building and Erosion balances out(EVEN)

Lyell=Balance+Building+ Erosion 

Term
Cuvier?
Definition

proposed that the history of the Earth is recorded in fossils.

Paleontology-Fossils-French-Recod of Earth's History 

 

Term
LINNAEUS?
Definition

Linnarean Hierachy

King  phillip   Cork Ordered Fresh Green Salads

kingdom phylum class order family genus species

 

animalia chordata mamalia primate homindae homo sapiens

Term
Lamarck?
Definition

Girraff's long neck is because of "Felt Needs"

posited that EVOLUTION OCCURS

ADAPTATION OCCURS 

-proposed SPONTANEOUS GENERATION(before pasteur's experiment)

- Population is the smallest unit evolution can occur in

Term
What Equation Represents the Genetypic Frequencis and what represents the Allytic Frequency in Hardy-Wienbergs Equilibrium
Definition
   p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1, where

       p = frequency of the dominant allele (A)

q = frequency of the recessive allele (a)

   

p + q = 1

p = 1 - q

      q = 1 - p

 2pq is the frequency of people with genotype (Aa) in a population.

p2 is the frequency of people with genotype (AA) in a population

q2 is the frequency of people with genotype (aa) in a population

 

q2 is the frequency of people with genotype (aa) in a population

Term
Rev. Malthus?
Definition

-proposed that Population is held in check by minimum resources, diseases and plague.

-Population Inreases EXPONENTIALLY(2-4-8-16-32) but resources are LIMITED.

- Food grows SLOWER or ARITHMATICALLY than Population

Term
Charles Darwin
Definition

Wrote the "Origin of Species" in 1859

-was puzzled by geographical distribution of animals

-ideas explained by DESCENT OF MODIFICATION 

-Animals from the same continent looked alike

-Island Distribution of mockingbird

-mocking bird on the same island sang different but identical to other mockingbirds on different islands.

 

Term
Species
Definition

"natural kind"

a group of population whose individuals can INTERBREED 

Term
WHAT'S COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
Definition

Says that all tetrapods Evolved from a single Ancestor.

-ALL FORM LIMBS

all vertebrates share a common ancestor

-Genetic code suggest that All organism share a common ancestor 

Term
What 3 areas of Science Test the Preposition or are Evident that Evolution has Occurred?
Definition

1 Molecular Biology

2. Paleontology

3. Comparative Embryology 

Term
NATURAL SELECTION
Definition

is a process in which individuals differ in SURVIVAL and REPRODUCTION, this different results from the possession of different HERITABLE forms of TRAIT such that one form of the trait(Camoflage) comes to predominate and the other(light Colored Bird) goes extinct.

Out of N.S relies heavily on the particular ENVIRONMENT. 

-One hertible gene dominate..Other is Lost 

Term
What are the 3 FORMAL REQUIREMENTS FOR NATURAL SELECTION TO OCCUR?
Definition

1. Trait Variation

2. Trait heritabilty

3. Consistent relationship between the Trait form and SURVIVAL/REPRODUCTION 

.If in fact the trait is heritable, the other form of the trait will become rear and rearer from generation to generation. 

Term

What happens if any of the 3 formal requirement(Trait viability, Trait heritability and consist Survival and Reproduction).  of Natural Selection does not occur?

 

Definition

 Natural Selection WILL NOT OCCUR

The present of all 3 is required for Natural Selection to occur. 

Term
Does individuals or populations evolve?
Definition

Individuals do NOT evolve..Populations evolve.

Dr. Bledsoe does NOT evolve. The Whole America evolve

Term
FITNESS
Definition

Defined irrespective of those who produce. It's define with respect to the Environmental context

ex. In an environment where the camoflage bird blends in within the Environment, it is less preyed upon than the COLORED BIRD. Hence Camoflage bird lives to reproduce than colored bird(FITNESS-in Environmental Context). 

Term
Suppose that an Island that had 100% tree and a storm came and blew down 90% of the trees and only 10% Survive and the REASON for survival is because they had a DEEPER ROOT System. Has Natural Selection Occurred?
Definition
Yes. Natural Selection has occurred because the reason the 10% survived was because they had a DEEPER ROOT SYSTEM.
Term
Heritable factors such as Genetic Variation within a Population is the result of what two mechanisms?
Definition

1. Mutation

2. Genetic Recombination 

Term
POPULATION
Definition
a group of conspecific (same)species living in a particular location.
Term
ASSUMPTIONS  or CRITIRIA'S DENOTING H.W EQUILIBRIUM
Definition

1. NO NATURAL SELECTION

2. NO MUTATION

3. INFINITE or LARGE POPULATION

4. NO GENE FLOW between population

5. MATING IS COMPLETELY RANDOM 

6.Everyone produces the same number of offspring 


Term
GENE FLOW(Non-adaptive)
Definition

refers to the movement of genes between population.

occurs when fertile individuals disperse.

If you move genes around, it changes the alleles frequencies in the population.

 

Think about flowing or migration.  If something flows, it moves around. Hence movement of genes around in a population 

 

Term
MUTATION(Non-adaptive)
Definition

Ultimate source of Evolution 

It's very very low

they are rarely beneficical

occurs at a rate of 10^-4 and 10^-8 per locus 

But if it happens, it changes the allele frequencies 

Term
NON-RANDOM MATING
Definition

its breeding between closely related partners.

If you white and white breed you get white. Hence it increases the frequency of the Homozygotes 

Term
POSITIVE ASSORTATIVE MATING
Definition

Like mates with Like

No one is forced to mate with another person so its like mate with like.

If you do that then you increase the frequency of the homogyzotes. Homo-same.. Black and Black = Black

this increase freq of Homozygotes (AA or aa). 

Term
NEGATIVE ASSORTATIVE MATING
Definition

Like mates with dislike

White and Black = light skin caucasian'

Hence it increase the frequenciy of the Heterozygotes (Aa) 

This changes the genotypes NOT the ALLELES..because we are just shuffling alleles. 

Term
RECOMBINATION
Definition

recombine existing alleles into new combinations.

 

Term
DIRECTIONAL SELECTION
Definition

individuals AT ONE END of the variation spectrum have higher fitness

-changes the mean trait value

- reduces variation within the population

-evolutional change occurs. 

Term
STABLILIZING SELECTION
Definition

individuals in at and around the mean trait value have higher fitness(people in the middle have high fitness)

-NO CHANGE IN MEAN trait value (because its just stablizing the mean value NO CHANGE 

-selection occurs(look at its name)

-NO EVOLUTIONAL CHANGE OCCURS. 

eg. Birth weight in humans) 

Term
DIVERSIFYING SELECTION(disruptive)
Definition

 people in the middle near the mean trait value have lower fitness.

-NO CHANGE IN MEAN TRAIT VALUE

-EVOLUTION DOES OCCUR 

-Reduced variation

-Each adapts to different Environment 

-Each pop has its own mean trait value. 

Term
SEXUAL SELECTION
Definition

increase the ability to obtain mates

-via ways of competition

-males are "choosy" of who to mate with. 

eg. American Robin and Peacock tails. 

Term
SPECIATION
Definition

the production of two or more species from a single ancestor

-its usually a gradual process

-It takes a long time for another species to form 

-speciation distibutes the attributes of utility(adaptation) to daughter species(because adapation is heritable)

extinction can decrease speciation but speciation outlast extinction. 

Term
WHAT IS THE BIOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT?
Definition

Ernest Mayr define species as a group of conspecific (same) species who have the potential to interbreed sexually but cannot interbreed with other groups.

"members of one species are Reproductively ISOLATED from members of another species"

 

-this defintion is lame because it does not apply to species that produces ASEXUALLY. 

Term
MORPHOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT
Definition

uses anatomcial differences to define species

-this definition is the most practical definition 

Term
PHENOTYPIC COHESION RESULTS FROM WHAT?
Definition

It results from 

1 Integrated Complexes of Genes

2. Integrated Sets of Adapatation 

-It provides explanation for the morphological species concepts 

Term
ECOLOGICAL & Adaptation
Definition

Natural selection yeilds adapatation

-as a result, members of a given species are adapted well to their environment.

 

however, HYBRIDS are at a great selective disadvantage.(they don't do well at ALL)

 

Term
WHAT is an ISOLATING MECHANISM? and WHAT ARE THE TWO MECHANISMS THAT PREVENT HYBRIDIZATION
Definition

a mechanism that prevents hybridization between species

 

Prezygotic(Before the Zygote forms)


Postzygotic(After fertilization)

-If either of these mechanism fail, Hybrids can be successful. 

Term
PREZYGOTIC
Definition

may prevent individuals of different species or population from interbreeding 

-occurs before fertilization

via

1. Hibitat Isolation (living in Ghana and America)

2.Behavior (acting wise and Stupid)

3. Time (mating at Day or at Night)

4.Incompatible Reproductive Anatomy (different shapes and sizes in the reproductive organs

5. Gametic Incompatibility(breeding may occur but sperm cannot fertilize the egg)

    ` 

Term
POSTZYGOTIC ISOLATION
Definition

-Mating will take place but Zygote will DIE

Occurs after prezygotic barriers 

 

1. Low Hybrid Viability (hybrids may die during developnment or may fail to mature normally and CANNOT mate as adults)

2. Hybrid Fertility(hybrids Cannot reproduce)

Basically hybrids will DIE, INFERTILE 

Term
ANAGENESIS
Definition

Evolutional change within lineages-a species can evolve WITHOUT SPLITTING into new ones

  - one species evolves into another without any splitting of the phylogenetic tree

-Adapative mechanism 

-An acestor has EVOLVED through gradual change without splitting 

-NOT A FORM OF SPECIATION-because it did not increase the species size 

eg. Marine Bivale and layers of sedimentary rock 

Term
CLADOGENESIS
Definition

Cladogenesis is evolution that results in the splitting of a lineage.

-results in successful speciation events

-Clads V 

Term
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION
Definition

Splitting via Geographic location

-If the population is geographically isolated, each of the population can evolve differently from the others.

that is  They can evolve independently from each other. 

Allopatric speciation is just a fancy name for speciation by geographic isolation, something extrinsic to the organisms prevents two or more groups from mating with each other regularly, eventually causing that lineage to speciate. Isolation might occur because of great distance or a physical barrier, such as a desert or river.
Term
COLONIZATION MODEL OF ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION[image]
Definition

results in a new colony formed by long distances dispersal

 

-The founding population is small and experiences the Founder EFfect-means that the new population is genetically unrepresentative of the parental population

-new colony is at risk of entinction 

Term

Peripatric Speciation

Definition

a SMALL population isolated at the Edge of a larger population

-located at the end of a geographical range 

-Conditons are usually difficult at this range(edge)

-predicts Rapid speciation than Dumbell Model

speciation is a more likely result of the geographic isolation because genetic drift acts more quickly in small populations

Term
SYMPATRIC SPECIATION
Definition
(sym = same, patric = place)
No geographical Isolation
Term
ADAPTATION
Definition

is the process by which attributes of utility arise in a population

-adapatation occurs via natural selection 

-gradual process can yeld major change in attributes in a long time. 

pepper moth color change is NOT a complex form of adaptation.

-COMPLEX FORM of adaptation evolve GRADUALLY

PRODUCTS of adaptation- attributes, MUST be of Utility in a given environmental context. 

 

Term
PRE-ADAPTATION
Definition

is a form of adapation that is excluded from adapatation.

-also known as exaptations

-Example-The thumb is pre-adapted to be used as a utility in communication. 

Term
SYSTEMATICS
Definition

-is the study of the nature of origin and causes of biological diversity-

-systematics seeks to explain how diversity has been generated and exactly when and what was involved and how does it explain the remarkable diversity on Earth. 

Term
CLADISTICS
Definition

method of putting together a phylogeny(a tree) using the concept of special similarity

-it requires information of attributes or characters(trait)

-tries to retrace the past using phylogenty(tree) and attributes and similarity 

Term
PHYLOGENY
Definition

The Tree of Life then represents the phylogeny of organisms, i. e., the history of organismal lineages as they change through time. It implies that different species arise from previous forms via descent, and that all organisms, from the smallest microbe to the largest plants and vertebrates, are connected by the passage of genes along the branches of the phylogenetic tree that links all of Life

-pattern of speciation that give rise to diversity depicted in a TREE FORM-

-Operates by way of detective work using DNA and DNA Hybridization. 

Term
WHAT IS MACROEVOLUTION?
Definition

is the study of evolution of complex adapatation

-the origin of major groups of organisms

-patterns of diversity and extinction

-history of life as revealed by the fossil record

-this occurs are a result of speciation

-These process are directly related to SPECIATION 

Term
EXPLAIN ALLOPOLYPLOIDY SPECIATION, Scenario One
Definition
In allopoloyploidy scenario one,two different spcies goes through meiosis and contribute different number of each of their basic chromosomes to form a zygote by way of Hybridization. The Hybrid then goes through non-disjunction mitotically and yields a diploid organism with 2n=10.this organism then goes through meiosis to form two haploid n=5, then by way of self fertilization, the two haploids form a diploid with 2n=10
Term
EXPLAIN ALLOPOLYPLOIDY SPECIATION Scenario two
Definition
In allopolyploidy scenario two, two different species forms a Hybrid through meiosis. One parent contribute half of its basic set of chromosomes, the other goes through non-disjunction and contribute all of its chromosome to form an abnormal triploid 3N. The triploid goes through non-disjunction miotically and yields a triploid 3N by contributing all of its chromosomes. That triploid hybrid,is able to produce a FERTILE diploid as a result of the contribution of a normal gamete by one of the parental species.
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