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| what is the function of enzymes in the cell? |
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Definition
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| regions that can interact w/ the substrate to form an enzyme-substrate complex |
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| formation of benzoquinone |
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Definition
| catechol+oxygen--->benzoquinone+H2O |
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| when the structure of the enzyme changes and it no longer acts as a catalyst |
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| the energy needed to initiate reactions. enzymes functions by lowering activation energy |
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| enzymes are globular in shape and have 1 or more active sites each of which is structured so that it bonds q/ a specific substrate. Ex.:despite the structure of catechol and hyrdroquine being very similar, catechol oxidase created a great deal of benzoquinone produced w/ the addition of catechol, but little to no product w/ the addition of hydroquinone |
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| inorganic molecules, usually metallic ions like copper, required by some enzymes to function |
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| works best at 40 degrees celcius and at 7pH (optimum temp/pH) |
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| they are adapted to the enviornment in which they are active. protein catalysts that regulate the rate of chemical reactions within cells |
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| 4 factors that can affect enzyme action |
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Definition
1. temperature- reactions catalyzed by enzymes have a temperature range in which the reaction will occur at optimum level; within this range the reaction rate increases 10% per every 1 degree celcius increase.
2.pH- enzymes function best at pH near neutral (pH 6-8)3. cofactor |
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| division of cells to produce 4 daughter cells (gametes) w/ a single set of chromosomes. used for sexual reproduction, genetic variation and chromosome update and repair. 1 diploid cell results in 4 daughter haploid cells |
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| division of a cell to produce 2 identical cells. used for growth, replacement and asexual reproduction. |
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| dipliod eukaryotic chromosomes that have nearly identical sequences of genes. after meiosis each of the 4 daughter cells only gets half of the homologous pair; humans have 23. similar size, gene loci (gene location) and staining patterns. NOT identical because they have they may have the same gene locus for eye color but 1 may have the gene for brown eyes and the other the gene for green eyes |
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| 2 replicated chromosomes as the result of the S stage of interphase, stilled joined together at the centromere forming an X shape. contain identical copies of the DNA molecule. |
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| having each chromosome w/ a nearly identical pair member. each daughter cell produced in mitosis is diploid; humans are diploid (2n) because we get each of our homologous chromosomes from each parent |
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| in the life cycle of an organism that reproduces sexually, a cell containing a signle set of chromosomes. an "n" cell; daughter cells produced by meiosis containing only 1 homolog (half the homologous pair) |
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| consists of DNA and protein. uncoiled, uncondensed chromosomes dispersed randomly throughout the nucleus. diffused, very extended form taken by chromosomes when a cell is not dividing |
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| threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. most visible during mitosis and meiosis |
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| the region of a duplicate chromosome where 2 sister chromatids are joined and where spindle microtubles attach during mitosis and meiosis. divides at the onset of anaphase during mitosis and anaphase II during meiosis |
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| the protein structure on chromosomes where spindle fibers attach during division to pull the chromosome apart |
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| a double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis. seperates the cytoplasm of a plant cell |
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| a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate. forms to sperate the cytoplasm of an animal cell (pinches inward). the 1st sign of cytokinesis during cell division in animal cells. |
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| precedes mitosis. cells spend about 90-95% of thier lives in interphase. time the cells needs to perpare for mitosis. 3 phases, G1, S, and G2 |
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| growth phase, increased metabollic activity and replication of organelles |
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| synthesis, DNA is replicated and chromosomes are reproduced |
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| cells make proteins required for the upcoming mitotic phase( nuclear division) and cytokinesis( cytoplasmic division) |
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| interphase (G1, S, G2)---> mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telephase)---> cytokinesis |
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| 1st stage of mitosis. plant cells do not have aster or centrioles; no arrangement of chromosomes; chromatin is condensing into chromosomes; nuclear envelope disappears; microtubles rapidly grow out from centrosomes and centrosomes moe towards the poles |
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| centromeres of chromosomes line up at the equatorial plate; centers of the chromosomes are at the equator of the cell and loose arms of chromosomes fall to either side of the equator |
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| centromeres of each chromosome come apart, seperating sister chromatids; kinetochores pull the duaghter chromosomes centromere along the microtubles towards opposite poles |
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| end of mitosis. daughter nuclei appear at the 2 poles as nuclear envelopes form around the chromosomes; chromosomes uncoil; cell as 2 collections of chromosomes because sister chromatids are being pulled in opposite directions. seperate sister chromatids are then called daughter chromosomes. |
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| not part of mitosis. division of the cytoplasm and its content (except DNA); overlaps the last part of mitosis. complete with the seperation of cells |
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| ova and sperm cells resulting from cell division that occurs in the gonads (overies and testes) of animals |
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| overal production of gametes. begins while the female is stil a fetus |
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| diploid. non-sex cell contains 46 individual chromosomes (2n). zygote formed by an egg (n) and sperm (n).uses mitosis to divided 1 diploid producing 2 diploid cells |
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| DNA is replicated; DNA is still in the form of chromatin |
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| condensation of chromosomes. pair of homologous chromosomes in a process called synapsis, where portions of the chromosome arms maybe swapped between homologs (crossing over); 4 sister chromatids form a tetrad. |
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| recombitation of genetic material as a result od synapsis |
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| spindle fibers move homologous pairs to the equator;the individual centromere of a pair lie on opposite sides of the cell equator and are connected to the poles by spindle fibers |
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| homologous pairs seperate and each homolog is pulled to the opposite pole; chromtids are still whole. each homolog contains 2 sister chromatids. because of crossing over the sister chromatids are no longer identical |
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| homologs are at the poles and a nuclear envelope form. cytokinesis produces 2 haploid daughter cells each w/ 2 sister chromatids for each chromosome |
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| chromatin condenses and nuclear envelope breaks down; chromatids are still attached via their centromeres |
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| chromosomes align along the equator; centromere are attached to spindle fibers at their kinetochores. |
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| centromere split and sister chromatids seperate into daughter chromosomes by moving to opposite poles |
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| chromatid are now full chromosomes and are at opposite poles; nuclear envelope reforms around each set of chromosomes |
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| 2 divisions, creates 4 haploid gametes, pair homologous chromosomes, cross over during prophase I that results in recombination of genetic material |
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| produces 2 diploid somatic cells |
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| both meoisis and mitosis... |
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| duplicate chromosomes in interphase |
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Term
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Definition
| nucleic acid monomer. built by connecting large numbers of nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds. consists of a 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and 4 nitrogenous bases (adenine, gaunine, cytosine and thymine). 2 strands held together by hydrogen bonding between complentary bases. T pairs w/ A using 2 hydrogens bonds and C pairs w/ G using 3 hydrogen bonds. double helix |
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| ribosomal RNA, a component of ribosomes; paired w/ protein makes up ribosomes |
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| transfer RNA. functions as an interpreter in translation. the carrier of individual amino acids. each as a specific anticodon, picks up a specific amino acid and conveys the amino acid to the appropriate codon on mRNA |
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| messenger RNA. the template for protein synthesis. carrys the genetic code written in A,U,G, and C, which directs the placement of amino acids in the protein chain. encodes genetic info. from DNA and conveys it to ribosomes |
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| both must be present for DNA synthesis to occur |
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| DNA fragments made by restriction enzymes can be sperated by the process of applying high voltage to a solution of charge molecules. DNA (neg charged) will migrate through the agarose gel toward the pos. electrode. the rate of migration of DNA fragments depends on their size and shaped an the gel pore size; small fragments migrate faster than largers ones, so the larger fragments will stay closer to the point of origin |
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Term
| restriction endonucleases |
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Definition
| restriction enzyme. special bacterial enzymes that cut DNA. proteins that bacteria use to prevent the invasion of foreign DNA such as viruses. these enzymes act as DNA scissors cutting foreign DNA into non-functioning peices; they recognize and cut at specific sites along the DNA molecule |
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Definition
| looks like a white stringy cottony mass |
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| DNA precipitation/DNA isolation method |
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Definition
| 1. break open the cell. 2. removing proteins and cellular debris from nucleic acid. 3. final purification of the DNA its self. additio of alcohol will cause DNA to form as a white precipitated at the interphase of the layers because DNA is insoluble in alcohol. |
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| a semi-conservative process where DNA is replicated. each strand of the double helix is used a a template for synthesis of a new complementary strand producing 2 new daught strands containing 1 old strand and 1 new strand |
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| the process of producing RNA from DNA. occurs in the nuclues. gene is transcribed; mRNA is made (mRNA is single stranded); the mRNA will be transported out of the nucleus to the cytoplasm so that protein synthesis can occur |
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| mRNA is used by ribosomes to insert the correct amino acids in the correct sequence to form the protein coded for that gene. 3 step process; initiation, elongation, termination |
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| the binding of the initial tRNA to mRNA that is bound to the smaller ribosomal subunit. |
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| the addition of as many amino acids as needed to build the protein. occurs as a new codon moves onto a reading site on the ribosome and the appropriate tRNA connects to it. continues until stop codon appears |
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| when a stop codn is encountered, the peptide chain is released and the mRNA and ribosomal subunits dissaciate and protein synthesis is terminated. |
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Definition
| single stranded nucleic acid. made of a 5-carbon sugar (ribose), a phosphate grouph and 4 nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil). produced from DNA by the process of transcription in the nucleus. RNA is transported out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm so protein synthesis can occur. 3 major types; rRNA,tRNA and mRNA. A pairs with U and T pairs w/ A both using 2 hydrogen bonds and C pairs w/ G using 3 hydrogen bonds. |
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| single celled organism lacking a nucleus and membrane enclosed organelles. their DNA is a signle circular chromosome. most abundant and oldest group of organisms. consists of eubacteria (true bacteria) and archaea (archaea bacteria or anciant bacteria) |
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| domain eukarya. multicellular w/ internal membrane bound organelles. thier DNA consists of multiple chromosomes. they reproduce sexual via meiosis. some have cells walls made of cellulose or chitin. thier plasma membrane consists of glycerol bonded to strait chained fatty acids |
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Term
| prokaryotes in the archaea domain |
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Definition
| have adpated to extreme enviornemnts such as high heat (thermophiles) and salts (halophiles). some grown in anaerobic conditions and generate methane (methanogens)most have cells walls but are different than bacteria because peptidoglycan is lacking. their plasma memebrane is diff. in structure from bacteria and consists of glycerol bonded to branched fatty acids |
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Definition
| developed a staining procedure, gram staining, that is used to distinguish the bacterial groups. staining is based on the vary composions of cell walls in diff bacteria species |
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| crystal violet. gram pos and gram neg both initially turn violet |
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| gram's iodine; added 2nd. results in a CV-I complex to form within gram neg and gram pos cells |
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| alcohol; added 3rd when added to gram pos. cell walls are dehydrated, pores shrink, permeability decreases, CV-I complex is retained and cell remain violet. gram neg; lipids are extracted from cell walls, porosity increases, CV-I is removed and cells turn colorless |
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| safranin; added last. gram pos cells are not affected and remain violet. gram neg cells take up the stain and become red |
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| prokaryotes in the domain bacteria |
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Definition
| most have cell walls comprised of peptidoglycan. have plasma membranes made of gylcerol bonded to straight chianed fatty acids |
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Definition
| have think peptidoglycan cell walls and retain purple color when stained w/ crystal violet |
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| have double cell walls; a think peptidoglycan inner wall and a outer wall made of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. these cells retain the red color when stained w/ safranin |
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| 3 basic shaped of bacteria |
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Definition
| bacilli are rod shaped. cocci and spherical shaped. spirilla are spiral shaped. |
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| 3 arrangements of bacteria |
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| chains (strepto), clusters (staphylo) and by twos (diplo) |
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| a single bacterium multiples to form a colony; a colony consists of millions of cells that arise from 1 cell. each colony exhibits specific colonial morphology |
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| ways to identify bateria species |
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Definition
| by their bacteriology (growth patterns), morphology (size and shape), their biochemistry ( how they obtain their carbon sources) their DNA sequences, or staining procedures |
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| grown in anaerobic conditions using CO2 to generate methane |
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| grow in salty enviornments containing 10% NaCl |
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| gorw at temps of 80 degrees celcuis or more. |
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| steps of gram staining (13) |
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| 2 basic needs of prokaryotes |
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Definition
| acquire chemical energy by producing ATP ( some are photosynthetic and some are chemosynthetic) and acquiring carbon in a form that can be used to synthesize other organic molecules used to build cells |
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| C6H12O6---> 2CO2+ 2C2H5OH + energy occurs under conditions of alcohol starvation. produces lactic acid or ethanol and carbon dioxide |
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| pyrivate molecules are reduced to CO2 and ethanol. the chemical reaction of yeast on sugars |
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| the reagent used to test for CO2 to measure metabolic rate. acidic pH is produced when CO2 enters the fluid. becomes yellow as pH goes down and pink purple is pH is alkaline |
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| forumla for oxygen consumption |
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Definition
| ml O2/mass in grams/time in hours |
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| 6CO2 +12H2O + light energy--->C6H12O6 +6O2 +6H20 |
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